Pervasive Ritual at Wroxeter: The Evidence of the Buried Ceramics from the Bushe-Fox Excavations 1912–14

Western literature has focused on medical plurality but also on the pervasive existence of quacks who managed to survive from at least the eighteenth to the twentieth century. Focal points of their practices have been their efforts at enrichment and their extensive advertising. In Greece, empirical, untrained healers in the first half of the twentieth century do not fit in with this picture. They did not ask for payment, although they did accept ‘gifts’; they did not advertise their practice; and they had fixed places of residence. Licensed physicians did not undertake a concerted attack against them, as happened in the West against the quacks, and neither did the state. In this paper, it is argued that both the protection offered by their localities to resident popular healers and the healers’ lack of demand for monetary payment were jointly responsible for the lack of prosecutions of popular healers. Moreover, the linking of popular medicine with ancient traditions, as put forward by influential folklore studies, also reduced the likelihood of an aggressive discourse against the popular healers. Although the Greek situation in the early twentieth century contrasts with the historiography on quacks, it is much more in line with that on wise women and cunning-folk. It is thus the identification of these groups of healers in Greece and elsewhere, mostly through the use of oral histories but also through folklore studies, that reveals a different story from that of the aggressive discourse of medical men against quacks.

The Social Spaces of Music Traditions in Baghdad before and after Destruction

In the twentieth century, at two crucial instances, comparisons with ancient Greek traditions played an important role in forwarding the argument in favor of the early origins of the pentateuchal narrative: Martin Noth’s “amphictyonic hypothesis” and Frank Moore Cross’s account of the Israelite “epic.” This article argues that success of these arguments owes to a hidden “parallelomania” at work in the mid-century, which successfully made the evidence of ancient Greek phenomena seem like something that it was not in service to desirable arguments. Finally, it explores how contemporary approaches can avoid repeating past mistakes.

Research Article| March 01 2010 H.D.'s American Sea Garden: Drowning the Idyll Threat to US Modernism Celena E. Kusch Celena E. Kusch Search for other works by this author on: This Site Google Twentieth-Century Literature (2010) 56 (1): 47–70. https://doi.org/10.1215/0041462X-2010-2002 Cite Icon Cite Share Icon Share Twitter Permissions Search Site Citation Celena E. Kusch; H.D.'s American Sea Garden: Drowning the Idyll Threat to US Modernism. Twentieth-Century Literature 1 March 2010; 56 (1): 47–70. doi: https://doi.org/10.1215/0041462X-2010-2002 Download citation file: Zotero Reference Manager EasyBib Bookends Mendeley Papers EndNote RefWorks BibTex toolbar search Search Dropdown Menu nav search search input Search input auto suggest search filter Books & JournalsAll JournalsTwentieth-Century Literature Search Advanced Search The text of this article is only available as a PDF. Copyright © Hofstra University2010 Article PDF first page preview Close Modal Issue Section: Essays You do not currently have access to this content.

Astronomy in México has an ancient tradition, reinforced during the twentieth century by groups working in theoretical and observational astronomy. During the 1990s, the Great Millimeter Telescope (a single 50-m antenna) has been approved, and a 6-m infrared telescope is under study. Graduate and undergraduate programs must be improved to prepare future Mexican and Latin American astronomers to take advantage of these facilities. To meet the challenge, two traditional Mexican programs (Instituto de Astronomia-UNAM and Instituto Nacional de Astrofisica, Optica y Electronica-INAOE) are updating their graduate programs. Similarly, the Departamento de Astronomía de la Universidad de Guanajuato is joining physicists in the first undergraduate program in México in physics and engineering with an option in astrophysics. This will prepare students for industry, academia or national laboratories, either in physics or astronomy. Jobs in academia have been scarce; many students had to give up their goals after one or two postdoctoral positions. Graduate and undergraduate programs must adjust, by broadening the scope of present programs so that students are better prepared for other job opportunities. We present a B.Sc. program designed by astronomers and physicists to try to address some of these concerns and to prepare the students for either continuing with graduate studies or finding employment in an ever-changing job market. (Co-author is Victor Migenes, Guamajato, México.)

BOOK REVIEWS L'Immaculée Conception dans l'Écriture Sainte et dans la Tradition Orientale, by Martin Jugie, A.A., Rome, 1952; 477pp. Summarily, the author, the Reverend Martin Jugie, A. A., gives a rather comprehensive treatment of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception in a chronological historical development, stressing the place of Holy Scripture and Oriental Tradition. In the preface, the Reverend Charles Balic, O. F. M., Director of the Bibliotheca Immaculatae Conceptionis tells us of the thesis proposed by the author: Mary existed in a particular state (status naturae reparantis) having the right to each and every preternatural gift of the state of innocence. The book itself is a chronological treatment of testimonies, both favorable and unfavorable , especially from the Scriptures and from Oriental Tradition. In treating of the Immaculate Conception in the Oriental Church from its origins down to the present time, this book is unique. The book itself is divided into three major parts. In the First Part is treated the Immaculate Conception in Holy Scripture and in the Oriental Tradition during the Patristic Period. In the Second Part, Byzantine Tradition from the Ninth to the Fifteenth Century is considered. The Third Part gives place to the Immaculate Conception in the Greco-Russian Church from the end of the Sixteenth Century up to the present day. Then follows a brief conclusion for the entire work. After a prologue, the author spends forty pages in treating of some preliminary questions. He discusses the notion of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception, the nature of original sin, the preternatural gifts and the state of innocence, the doctrine of original sin among the Greek Fathers, different methods of formulating the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception, and finally, the controversy in the Oriental Church on the Immaculate Conception previous to the Sixteenth Century. AU these points enumerated constitute the first chapter. In the second chapter the author treats of the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception in the Sacred Scriptures. He states the question, and then under separate headings investigates: Mary as all holy and always holy, Mary blessed as Jesus and always blessed, the Mother of God, the victory of the woman over the serpent, and Mary redeemed. In the conclusion to the second chapter. Father Jugie asserts that Scripture is ,,not completely silent on the dogma defined by Pius IX." Rather, Scripture has expressions which suggest this truth. In the third chapter, the original sanctity of the Mother of God in Oriental Tradition of the first five centuries is proposed. The most ancient tradition from the Council of Nicea to the Council of Ephesus and the Fathers of the Fifth Century are considered. 210 Book Reviews211 In the last chapter, after discussing the Immaculate Conception in the Byzantine Church from the Sixth to the Ninth Century in the fourth chapter, the doctrine of the Nestorian and Monophysite Churches on the Immaculate Conception is examined, in the fifth. Part Two deals with Byzantine Tradition from the Ninth to the Fifteenth Century. The two chapters of this Part include the Byzantine Theologians of the second half of the Ninth Century to the end of the Thirteenth (chapter one), and the theologians of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries (chapter two). In the Third Part, the author is concerned with the Immaculate Conception in the Greco-Russian Church from the Sixteenth Century to the present day, in five chapters. Chapter One contains the Greek Theologians in the Sixteenth and the Seventeenth Centuries, both favorable and unfavorable. In the second chapter the Greek Theologians of the Eighteenth Century, and in the third chapter the belief of the Russian Church previous to the Seventeenth Century are examined. In the fourth chapter, the Immaculate Conception in Russia during the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries is presented. The final and fifth chapter concludes by proposing the Russian Theologians of the Ninteenth and Twentieth Centuries. The work is summarized in a five page resume, with an index of proper names and table of contents appended. In this conclusion, the author states some resulting principles, in a synthesis of the work. Holy Scripture "in its literal sense, independent of the interpretation of certain Fathers, does not furnish us with explicit...

Complementary medicine systems are ascending to rapid popularity as the twenty-first century progresses. Often adapted from ancient systems of healing such as Ayurveda, these modern alternative medical movements reappraise millennia-old...

Reviewed by: The Problems of Viewing Performance: Epistemology and Other Minds by Michael Y. Bennett Brice Ezell The Problems of Viewing Performance: Epistemology and Other Minds. By Michael Y. Bennett. Routledge, 2021. Cloth: $160.00, eBook: $48.95. 150 pages. Michael Y. Bennett occupies a near-solitary place in what he rightly calls the "philosophical turn in theatre and performance studies in the new millennium" (3). This "turn" has to do with the philosophical tradition in which Bennett anchors his work: analytic philosophy. There are now numerous studies of other philosophical entanglements with drama and theatre that feature philosophers dating from the ancient tradition (Plato, in Martin Puchner's The Drama of Ideas) all the way up to twentieth-century thinkers like Hannah Arendt (in Minou Arjomand's Staged). But although analytic philosophy has been the dominant academic mode of philosophy in the United States and Great Britain for the bulk of the twentieth century and up to the present, it has received little engagement from the world of drama and theatre studies. In a 2018 special issue of Anglia on drama, theatre, and philosophy, Laura Cull Ó Maoilearca goes so far as to argue against the legitimacy of an analytic approach to theatre. A recent uptick in literary interest in the analytic tradition, particularly in the work of Ludwig Wittgenstein, has not, it seems, encouraged drama and theatre scholars to look in that direction. Except, that is, for Bennett. His latest monograph, The Problems of Viewing Performance: Epistemology and Other Minds, follows and builds upon his Analytic Philosophy and the World of the Play (2017). Where the latter offers a broad analytic approach to the events of a theatrical production, this new book applies a specific analytic subfield, epistemology, to a core theatrical "problem"—namely, the question of whether the experience of being in an audience is shared. As he does in World of the Play (where, for example, he argues that the events of a play occur in the past subjunctive rather than the present), Bennett advances some unorthodox positions. Chief among these is his claim that "viewing performance is not a shared experience," but is instead an "intersubjective" experience "often modified by other viewers" (3). To elucidate his position, Bennett brings together theatrical concerns with numerous philosophers and examples from analytic epistemology that will be familiar to philosophy undergraduates, such as Edmund Gettier's famous "Gettier cases." For many in theatre and performance studies without traditional philosophical training, however, this philosophy can be a useful new resource. The Problems of Viewing Performance initiates an intriguing conversation. [End Page 93] He is perhaps too quick to dismiss a good deal of scholarship on audience studies when he says that the "performer-audience model of theatrical production and reception is based on a largely unproblematized and simple conceptual structure of an audience at the theatre" (15); the aforementioned Staged is just one recent example of many monographs that theorize the nature of a theatrical audience. But Bennett wisely outlines the myriad ways that the questions raised by analytic epistemology bear upon our notions of audience, examined or unexamined. These questions include: "What is the nature of our own mind?" "What is the relationship between my mind and the minds of others?" The Problems of Viewing Performance utilizes a bipartite structure. These halves are neatly organized, as is the volume itself. Bennett writes clearly and precisely and is careful to define terms. Part I, spanning chapters 1–3, focuses on Bennett's analytic epistemological approach to the theatre, in which he troubles the commonsense notion that theatrical audiences have a "shared" experience. Part II, chapters 4-8, surveys a wide range of plays, including two medieval vernacular plays, Shakespeare's Hamlet, and some well-known works by contemporary playwrights such as Tony Kushner and Maria Irene Fornés. The topics explored in these stand-alone chapters frequently call back to The Problems of Viewing Performance's theoretical first half, yet at times the book drifts. The argument presented in chapter 5 about the medieval plays Le Jeu de Saint Nicolas and The Castle of Perseverance highlights the traditionally drawn boundaries between stage and audience, which naturally impact how audiences gather knowledge...

We live in a period in which humanity is in the process of remembering or rediscovering itself as an aspecl of nature. For the westernized technocratic world this is indeed an arduous, challenging and exhilarating process of rediscovery. Concomitantly, we live in a period in which we are rediscovering the divine, not as obedience to a judgmental and paternalistic God, but as the living Spirit that flows within each of us and all around us. Whether, or to what extent, these rediscoveries will avert the disastrous course on which Lhe industrial and militaristic structures of transnational capitalism have embarked us remains to be seen. It is in this period that somatic psychology emerges, and there are three ways to frame the history of this emergence: First, there is a sense in which somatic psychology and bodymind therapy have been practiced for millennia. For they inhere to ancient spiritual traditions, and are evident in indigenous methods of healing. In this sense, the bodymind perspective was occluded by the industrial developments of western technology along with the cultural structures of globalized capitalism. Some commentators also argue that, even before those developments, this bodymind vision of the human being was ideologically opposed by the hegemony of specific forms of Christian and Islamic theology, in the twentieth century, the bodymind perspective was also systematically and ideologically obscured by the development of behaviorist, cognitivist and psychoanalytic psychologies (which tended to relegate the body to a secondary status, as was discussed in Chapter 1). But despite these adverse developments, somatic psychology and bodymind therapy are manifestations of ancient lineages of wisdom that are perhaps now, once again, coming into their own. Second, there is also a sense in which somatic psychology and bodymind therapy were initiated as an offshoot of western psychotherapy in the early twentieth century. This is the sense in which Wilhelm Reich (1897 1957), a brilliant and dissident student and colleague of Freud’s, is sometimes honored as the “father” of somatic psychology. We will discuss this development further in Chapter 7. Third, there is a sense in which somatic psychology and bodymind therapy are very recent developments, emerging since the pivotal decade of the 1960s, beginning to blossom in Europe and North America very much in the last two decades of the twentieth century, and gathering strength as the twenty-first century gets underway.

Reviewed by: The Pharmakon: Concept Figure, Image of Transgression, Poetic Practice ed. by Hermann Herlinghaus Laurence M. V. Totelin Hermann Herlinghaus, ed. The Pharmakon: Concept Figure, Image of Transgression, Poetic Practice. Heidelberg: Universitatsverlag Winter, 2018. viii + 392 pp. €38.00 (978-3-8253-6740-4). The ancient Greek word pharmakon has three main meanings: that of healing drug, that of poison, and that of magic potion. Since the third meaning is relatively close to that of "poison," one can say, together with the French philosopher Jacques Derrida, that pharmakon is a dipole concept. Its two poles, however, cannot be construed simply in terms of bad and good; the Greeks did not conceive of the pharmakon in a moralizing, dogmatic way. This volume takes the Greek notion of pharmakon as a way of entry into a reflection on the complexities of the "pharmacological imagination," a reflection that avoids the simplistic logic of good versus bad. It aims to challenge and problematize a narrow understanding of the notion of "drug"—a narrow "pharmacologicalism"—where drugs are reduced to their bio- and neurochemical effects, and where their use is classified as good (under medical supervision, controlled) or bad (addiction). Instead, the notion of "drug" must be contextualized and historicized, its appearances in literature and philosophy must be analyzed. In the opening chapter Mike Jay demonstrates that the pejorative meaning of "drug" as an illegal psychoactive substance is relatively new. He shows that the concept was codified in law only in the twentieth century, starting with the [End Page 453] Hague International Opium Conference in 1912 and culminating with the 1961 UN Single Convention on Drugs, where drug addiction was termed an "evil." Very soon, however, with the rise of the counterculture, the consensus around "bad" drugs began to fracture. The pharmakon always resists simplistic moralizing conceptualizations. There follow thirteen varied and thought-provoking chapters, exploring themes as diverse as the north-south and transatlantic dynamics in the conceptualization of tobacco (Hermann Herlinghaus and Arne Romanowski); the Chinese American author Maxine Hong Kingston as a voice of the 1960s counterculture (Agniezka Soltysik Monnet); narratives of courtly love written in the twelfth century (Cornelia Wild); the theme of intoxication in the French poet Guillaume Apollinaire's work (Diemo Landgraf); and the nineteenth-century experimental project with hashish conducted by the French psychiatrist Moreau de Tours (Katrin Solhdju). Like the pharmakon, the volume cannot be easily summarized and classified. The four sections into which Herlinghaus divided the essays (renarrations into the twentieth century; hemispheric scenarios—cultural explorations; aesthetics and poetology; interfaces) are relatively loose and flow into each other in a fruitful way—rigidity would be counterproductive here. A personal highlight was the chapter "Promise and Deceit: Pharmakos, Drug Replacement Therapy, and the Perils of Experience" by Todd Meyers (which had been previously published in Culture, Medicine & Psychiatry 38 [2014]). Here the author explores the lies he dealt with in his anthropological fieldwork among adolescents abusing heroin, with a focus on the touching story of "Megan" and "Cedric." Meyers argues that the Greek notion of pharmakos, the scapegoat that cleansed a city of its evil, is good to think with when studying addict-patients. He movingly writes "the pharmakos-pharmakon (pharmakeus) is a lie told in order to make the act of healing possible. And the patient-subject is, by necessity, ruined" (p. 334). Plato's Phaedrus and Derrida's "La pharmacie de Platon" (1972) quite naturally play a prominent role in this collection of essays. Martin Treml offers a good chapter on the topic of the pharmakon in ancient Greek traditions. The volume, however, could perhaps have included more on the ancient world. At times, authors appeared to derive their knowledge of the Phaedrus mostly from Michael Rinella's Pharmakon: Plato, Drug Culture, and Identity in Ancient Athens (2010)—there is a wealth of other scholarship on the topic. Nor did the editor settle for a single spelling of "Phaedrus" and other frequently mentioned Greek names. But it is perhaps facile for a historian of ancient medicine to pick on such small points. Generally, I found the volume engaging and stimulating. I particularly enjoyed seeing the theme of love as a drug emerge in several...

Lucretius' On the Nature of Things, one of the glories of Latin literature, provides a vivid poetic exposition of the doctrines of the Greek atomist, Epicurus. The poem played a crucial role in the reinvention of science in the seventeenth century, its influence on the French Enlightenment was powerful and pervasive, and it became a major battlefield in the wars of religion with science in nineteenth-century England. But in the twentieth century, despite its vital contributions to modern thought and civilisation, it has been largely neglected by common readers and scientists alike. This book offers an extensive description of the poem, with special emphasis on its cheerful version of materialism and on its attempt to devise an ethical system that suits such a universe. It surveys major relevant texts form the eighteenth and ninetheenth centuries (Dryden, Diderot, Voltaire, Tennyson, Santayana) and speculates on why Lucretius and the ancient scientific tradition he championed has become marginalised in the twentieth century. It closes with a discussion of what value the poem has for students of science and technology in the new century: what advice it has to offer us about how to go about reinventing our machines and our morality.

Archaeological investigations of the Overlook Rockshelter in the Caves Branch River Valley of central Belize offer a unique view of ancient Maya cave ritual through the complete recovery and analysis of all artifacts within the site's two small activity areas. In general, the assemblage contains many of the same types of objects documented from other nearby caves and rockshelters. However, the nearly 1700 ceramics sherds showed almost no refits, demonstrating that sherds were deposited at the site individually, rather than as complete vessels. The human bone assemblage represents three or four individuals, with the majority of the bones comprising a single individual, and all of these were deposited as incomplete secondary interments. Analogies for this depositional behavior based on archaeological and ethnographic studies suggest that this rockshelter may represent a waypoint within a ritual circuit composed of multiple locations over which fragments of complete items such as ceramic vessels and secondary burials were spread.

De gevel – een intermediair element tussen buiten en binnen: Over het tonen en vertonen van het twintigste-eeuwse woongebouw in Nederland

This study is based on the fact that all people have a basic need for protection from other people (and animals) as well as from the elements (the exterior climate). People need a space in which they can withdraw from the rest of the world. The two states, inside and outside, public and private, contact with, or isolation from, the outside world, are relevant in fulfilling this basic need. People also want their home to have a certain appearance or status which they can identify with and which they can present to the outside world. This can also often be derived from the façade. The façade which is on a side which can be seen by the general public can be seen by the most people. Protection and appearance/status are two important characteristics of the façade. The term social filtering is used in this study to mean protection and face or mask to mean appearance/status. The means which can be used for protection embrace a broad spectrum, of which a fence, the doorstep (threshold), the door and shutters are just some initial examples. The means which can be used to lend status to a house are just as diverse. It is impossible to make a strict distinction between the means of social filtering and those of the face or mask and they often fulfil both functions. The façade as social filter and as face or mask of the residential building is the starting point of this study. Both the roles, as social filter and face of the home, have undergone great change as a consequence of the accommodation of several homes in the one building. The history of homes in the Netherlands shows that the individual house has only been one of many dwelling possibilities since the nineteenth century ; the ‘stacking’ of homes on top of each other in larger buildings, described as residential building, became a necessity in the cities. This is why this study is focussed on the residential building and its façade in the city in the Netherlands. Two questions formed the starting point for this study: 1. How can information about the need for contact or isolation, and the need for status, be read from the exterior of a house? 2. What happens to the face and the social filter of a building when we no longer look at it as a house for just one social unit but as a residential building which accommodates several homes? The two questions resulted in an investigation into the aspects by which the social filter and the face of a façade can be read. Residential buildings designed as such to meet the demand in cities began to appear more often in the second half of the nineteenth century. Initially, they were cheap and hardly innovative. By the start of the twentieth century, the entrance to homes in the residential building, an important element of the social filter, had become a subject of study for architects and various solutions were developed. The appearance of the residential building showed, on the one hand, pragmatic approaches, but on the other, architects tried to develop a face or mask for this relatively new type of building. Throughout the twentieth century, the period covered by this study, the residential building and its façade have undergone great change. This change reflects the cultural, social, technical and economic factors which have had an effect on the design of the residential building and the significance of the façade with its social filter and its face or mask. Today, the façade of the residential building has reached a freedom which reflects the possibilities, the architect’s creative expression and the client’s commercial needs. The façade hardly contributes to the communication between life outside and the resident and his or her home inside. Social filtering, which often takes place in a dynamic way between the exterior and the interior, is still important, but now takes place to a large degree behind the façade. The face shown is neutral, if not anonymous, and hides the number of homes behind the screen. In order to follow the changes in the residential building and its façade through the twentieth century and to understand with what means architects have developed the façade in particular, the research question has been formulated as: What factors and architectonic means have been decisive in the Netherlands in the twentieth century for the façade of the residential building as an intermediary element (as face/mask and social filter) between the exterior and the interior? The aim of this study is to learn more about the factors which lead to the decisions about the design of a façade and to understand the architectonic means which are applied to make a façade readable. This study also has the aim of providing an analytical approach to looking at a façade and making a contribution to the design of buildings and a broader study of the relationship between buildings and their façades. The study is organised in a theoretical framework and the analysis of ten projects. The theoretical framework in respect of façade, face and mask (chapter 4), a historical context of residential construction (chapter 5), a context of the development of public, exterior living (chapter 6), and private, interior living (chapter 7) are included in the theoretical framework. The analysis of the ten projects is presented in chapter 8. The framework and the analysis form one whole. The analysis of the case studies demanded a method which would illustrate the façade as social filter and face or mask. In order to make the role of social filter more comprehensible, the transition from the public space in front of the main entrance to the entrance to the home has been illustrated by means of two isometric drawings. The public space of the steps from the doorstep or pavement to the private home is also documented in a diagram, and the architectonic resources which make up this transition are recorded with photos. For the analysis of the façade as a face, the parts of the human face which are easily included visually are used metaphorically. The eyes are openings, the mouth is an entrance or door, the nose is a vertical feature, the head shape of the face is the most easily read form of the building and the profile supports the information because it shows depth. Visually striking aspects of the face which protrude, recede, frame or divide can be translated in the façade as, for example, bay windows, balconies, beams, framing lintels or windowsills. Visually distinguishing lines of profiles can be seen in the form of balconies or, for instance, a switch in material. In order to use the metaphor of the human face as the foundation for an analysis in architecture, an analytical framework has been assembled. The Gestalt laws, applied to buildings by Niels Prak, demonstrate how we visually perceive the built environment. The head shape and horizontal and vertical parts and sections are perceived faster than free forms or a complex picture with a lot of different information. These laws justify the choice of the subjects for analysis which have been drawn in a reduced form. The subjects for analysis for the façade as face are: the head shape, the profile, the openings for light and for the entrance (door), visible constructional elements in the façade (horizontal and vertical), decorative parts, protruding and receding parts, material and colour. In the analysis, the sociocultural background of the project will be described, summarised as building assignment, and all the architectonic aspects will be shown which make up the social filter and appearance, summarised as building form. Façade definitions (chapter 4) The term façade means the vertical exterior of the building, just as the face practically vertical is. The roof is governed by its own principles and is not always a part of the façade unless it can be seen. The horizontal roof, like the crown of a head, cannot easily be seen. The term façade carries several meanings. The façade is something that is presented to its surroundings and that is why it is often associated with the face. The term façade (Latin facies = face) makes the connection with the metaphor of the face clear: the façade of the building is meant to be the presentable side which is shown to the public. The human face communicates non-verbally by means of expression. The façade does not have this movement and can only be called a face metaphorically. The façade can still show what happens behind it to a degree, however, what the building is for, for example. The façade can also exhibit an idea or represent an illusion; the façade is then a mask. The term garment is used for both the protective and aesthetic role of the façade. A garment keeps you warm and protects, but it can also be decorative and the status of the person wearing it can be clear if the code included in the decoration is understood. The façade therefore also fulfils this role as the conveyor of information. The degree to which the façade has a filter role is determined by the degree to which it allows things to pass though it: light, air and temperature but also people and animals. This ability to allow things to pass through it is dynamically regulated depending on the means used. Depending on the building’s spatial configuration, there may also be a front façade, rear façade or side façade. The historic context of the residential building (chapter 5) The urban house changed almost imperceptibly until the nineteenth century into a building which accommodated several homes. The construction of the residential building designed as such intensified in the second half of the century, however, when the increasing demand for housing meant that it was necessary to provide more options. The ‘stacking’ of homes in such a building meant another means of entering the building. The immediate entrance to the home increasingly withdrew from the street and communal entrances and stairwells appeared. The most important change from the individual house to the shared building was the entrance. Architects often lent expression the communal entrance, perhaps to help the resident and visitor become more familiar with its new communal aspect. Various changes to the residential building and its façade can be seen throughout the twentieth century. While architects like Hendrik P. Berlage and his followers in the first two decades enriched the façade with details and news ideas for communal entrances arose, functionalists like Willem van Tijen designed residential buildings in the thirties and during the post-war reconstruction which showed what their function was without any embellishment. Architects reacted to social, economic and technical factors. Where the first residential buildings consisted of six to eight homes per staircase per floor, the introduction of galleries and then, in the fifties, the lift, meant that many more homes could be accommodated. This was particularly the case in the sixties after the first wave of post-war reconstruction. The residential buildings were so big that it was barely possible to see the whole form. They were also a product of mass production. The seventies, with the focus on individuality and consultation, saw the production of homes shift towards small-scale neighbourhoods with façades which made small groups of homes readable. The last two decades of the twentieth century were characterised by more sober façades and larger residential buildings. The façades project neutrality and the anonymity of living in the town or city. The diversity of the façades and the choice of material have increased dramatically and are also used to express the luxury of living in the city. The façade and the public (chapter 6) The gradual transition from street to house in the town or city in the Netherlands has been present for centuries. The border between the two was vague, people worked both in front of, and in the house. An important change for living in the town or city was the disappearance of city walls and gates after 1874 as a consequence of the vestigingswet [‘Settlement Act’], which allowed non-residents into the city or town without checks, and when the front door was established as the border between the public and the private. The façade became a necessary border between the public and the private. The street lost its importance as public space for those living on it as traffic increased. The introduction of the residential building only increased the distance to the street. The anonymization of the street also played a large role throughout the whole of the twentieth century. The functionalists rejected the street and wanted to connect homes with recreation and green spaces. Urban blocks of buildings were opened up as was the layout of residential buildings. This resulted in residential buildings which had several façades which were visible to the public. In the seventies, some architects, like Herman Hertzberger, returned the street to the resident and a pedestrian friendly zone in front of homes (the woonerf) was created. The house façades on the residential areas allowed openness and space to be seen, fusing the public and the private. This approach was quickly followed by a reintroduction of a distance to the street. The last two decades of the twentieth century were characterised by a withdrawal of the social filter role to behind the façade. The street’s role as part of the home can only be found in very protected environments. The façade and private living (chapter 7) Private living was initially led by an increasing embarrassment and hygiene. The need to retreat further into the house gave rise to a more differentiated layout even in the traditional house and this can be read from the façade. In the second half of the nineteenth century, the privacy of the home was lost when it was housed with several others in the one building and by the internal entrance in a relatively open landing on the upper floors. The first two decades of the twentieth century saw various entrances which made privacy possible such as the entrance stairwell and the gallery. The homes received their own front doors with a hall behind them. At subsistence level, privacy was reduced to a very small space and this would only change after the Second World War; regulations for minimum surface areas in the fifties contributed to this. Economic growth in the sixties and seventies allowed a need for individual development and private space within the family. Increasing preferences for homes resulted in a greater diversity but also in neutral houses which could be adapted. The façade reflects this. Privacy at the end of the twentieth century meant freedom of choice. The residential building showed the consideration for this freedom in a neutral façade. The case studies (chapter 8) The case studies reflect the various phases of the changes in the residential building and its façade. The ten projects chosen can be found in the Dutch town or city and have all been designed as homes. The projects chosen are: • 1914 – The Hague portico Copernicuslaan, Den Haag, architect unknown • 1911-15 – Dwellings in the Indische Buurt, Amsterdam, architect H.P. Berlage • 1918-22 – Justus van Effen Complex, Rotterdam, architect M. Brinkman • 1925–26 – Residential building Oldenhoeck, Amsterdam, architect P.A. Warners • 1932–34 – Bergpolder Flat, Rotterdam, architect W. van Tijen • 1955-58 – Dwellings Pendrecht IV, Rotterdam, architects J. en L. de Jonge • 1962-68 – Dwellings Het Breed, Amsterdam, architect F. van Gool • 1969–76 – Dwellings Molenvliet, Papendrecht, architect F. van der Werff • 1978–82 – Dwellings Haarlemmer Houttuinen, Amsterdam, architect H. Hertzberger • 1994–98 – City block De Landtong, Rotterdam, architect CIE, F. van Dongen The first two cases just have six to eight homes per staircase per floor and their entrances are richly decorated while the Justus van Effencomplex and, in the sixties, Het Breed project with a gallery bring many more homes together and their entrances are less expressively designed. At the end of the twentieth century, the Landtong connects the homes visually with each other by means of an internal corridor with a void allowing the other floors to be seen. The expression of the collective and the individual through the century is very different; the home cannot always be read from the façade. Conclusion The most important conclusion from this research is that the social filter between the public and the private today often lies behind the screens, so that the transition between the public space and the façade is less gradual and the expressiveness of the façade is different and achieved by other means. The façade is more of a mask to protect the anonymous home than a face that exhibits it. The line between a façade as a face or a mask is not always clear, however, because the perspective of the person looking at it can change. A façade can create an illusion in the distance, but show the home from close by. This study demonstrates the development of the residential building and its façade in the Netherlands with the focus on their development in the twentieth century. The relationship of the façade with the immediate public space surrounding the home and the relationship of the façade with the private home have been important starting points for this study. It places the façade as an important element in protecting the home and as well as an expression of it. The study demonstrates a way of looking at the façade which is very important for design decisions for new construction but also for maintenance and conservation.

Dominantan uticaj poetike mita, koja je obnovljena u XX veku mitskim romanom, polazište je za tumačenje mitskog metateksta u kratkom romanu Borislava Pekića Uspenje i sunovrat Ikarija Gubelkijana. Značajno je ugledanje B. Pekića na poetiku Tomasa Mana, u skladu sa tumačenjem romana u ključu mitskog romana XX veka. Uticaj antičkog i biblijskog mita u pripovedanju, naglašava se postupkom citatnosti, dok se radom teži isticanje nadogradnje polazišnog arhiteksta. Motiv taštine je ključan za tumačenje intencije romana jer je ravan u kojoj se prelamaju oba arhiteksta. Fokusiranjem na značenje motiva taštine u romanu, nastoji se da se obrazloži paradoks razotkriven u motivisanju taštine pripovdanjem.