Peasant Action and Agency – Social Structure and the Construction of Specialty Industries: A Case Study of the Developmental Process of “Wuchang Rice”

The historical and archaeological approach to peopling processes, landscape articulation and social organization during the Early Middle Ages is a complex issue that requires an integrated management of written and material sources. Under Frankish rule, Catalonia was a border area developing its own inner strategies of settlement based upon agrarian expansion. Habitat structures and habitat nuclei show an evolution in parallel to the formation of Counties. Archaeological record of late villae, early medieval settlements presenting diverse features, and agrarian landscapes with silos are some examples which illustrate the impact of peasant agency on the landscape during this period. Examining material culture and the evolution of pottery in this area during the early medieval and medieval periods is also a valuable tool to understand the local and regional networks of peasant communities. This paper aims at offering an updated state of the art, together with some reflections about the methodological strategies used in order to explore the role of peasantry during this period in the Catalan area.

Market transformations in economic system of the Russian Federation from 1991 conditioned the change of consumers drug support organization principles, and the market formation led to the business development in this field. Pharmaceutical market is a socially significant market, which leads to the necessity of active realization of competitive business environment development in the conditions of effective state regulation and support. The problem of creation and development of small businesses has a special value for the national economy. These businesses provide the production of significant, and in some cases dominating part of a gross domestic product in many developed countries. State policy of small business support in Russia has become an individual system direction of social and economical state policy. It is formed by the principle of favorable conditions creation for small business development, especially in the fields of activity which give maximum social and economical effect. The actions coordination of federal executive authorities, executive authorities of federal subjects of the Russian Federation and local governments, social organizations, and entrepreneurs associations was enhanced to create the conditions of effective development of small business, form a flexible system of its state support. Analysis of the measurements implemented in the Republic of North Ossetia – Alania, aimed to the small business support for the evaluation of possibility of their use for pharmacy organization opening was the purpose of the study.

From a qualitative study of flight attendants volunteering as support providers in a peer-based employee assistance program, we derive a typology of the boundary management tactics used by peer-support providers to maintain a comfortable distance from help recipients and propose a grounded theory explaining providers' selection of tactics. After identifying two factors associated with tactic selection (personal experience and social structure), we demonstrate that support providers' cognitive orientations, or logics of action, mediate the relationship between these factors and tactic selection. We identify four types of support providers' logics of action and show how a provider's logic may predict his or her preference for a particular boundary management tactic.

REVIEWS On occasion he will also specify a meaning where is it not so clear in the Old English: he renders the header "Be ]Jam men ]Je ungedafenlice hremo, ]Jret is wio nytenum, oooe hine mid geonglingum besmiteo, oooe wrepnedman wio ooerne" as "Concerning those who fornicate unlaw­ fully, that is with animals, or one who soils himself with young ones, or a male who has intercourse with another male." The Old English actu­ ally says, "Concerning the man who copulates indecently, that is with animals, or pollutes himself with young ones, or [concerning} the man [who pollutes himself] with another [man}." The specific polluting act is not mentioned in the header or text proper. Since the text is clearly distributing "besmiteo" (soils, pollutes) over the two phrases, inserting "has intercourse with" here overreads the Old English evidence. There are instances where the translation alters the grammar of a passage. His modern English rendition of Genesis A 2408-18 misunderstands two genitive plurals and transforms sinners into sins, i.e., actors into acts: synnigra cyrm is (mis)translated "outcry of sin" and ealogalra gylp as "an ale-foolish boast" when the poem is referring to the noise of sinners and the boast of people drunk on ale. Similarly the translation of the section of Genesis A describing the Sodomites' destruction (lines 2581-82) mis­ takes object for subject; the correct reading should be: "pride and drunk­ enness advanced in them to such a degree that they became too greedy for wicked deeds." (Two lines further, dugeoa should be translated "pros­ perity" not "retainers.") KATHERINE O'BRIEN O'KEEFFE University of Notre Dame PAUL FREEDMAN. Images ofthe Medieval Peasant. Figurae: Reading Medi­ eval Culture Series. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1999. Pp. xvi, 459. $65.00 cloth, $22.95 paper. Static and phatic is the normal concept of the image of the medieval peasant, inarticulately stuck in the hierarchical mud, capable of the oc­ casional gesture devout or resistant, but essentially the flat and feature­ less feet of the human social body. By titling his book in the plural-Images, not Image-Paul Freedman 487 STUDIES IN THE AGE OF CHAUCER implies from the start there is more than that reductive account, and the rich derail of this full and scholarly book justifies the claim. Freed­ man (well named to liberate his servile topic from ignorance) is well known as a historian ofmedieval Catalonia, but he has researched much more widely here, looking in some detail at late medieval German mate­ rials, as well as English, French, and Hungariansources and a wide range of Latin authors, both familiar and recondite, who transmit concepts and expectations of peasantry. The inherent methodological problem of a project like this, with masses ofmaterial gathered over twenty years, is how to sort it for writ­ ing up. It would have been straightforward to move by areas and pe­ riods, and that might have made a useful handbook, comparing the geohistorically varying images of peasantry and contextualizing the dif­ ferences. Freedman has chosen to sort his material in a more difficult theme-focused way, more likely to highlight the ideas and issues that consider, define, and to a substantial degree both validate and interro­ gate the concept and state of medieval peasantry. The first three parts of the book set out broad categories with regard to peasantry: "Peasant Labour and a Hierarchical Society" considers how the peasant was seen to fit into a downward-organized social structure; "The Origins of Inequality" explores ways in which the evident imbal­ ance of power was explained away; and "Unfavorable Images of Peas­ ants" describes varied explanations of why the low deserved their po­ sition. These three parts ofsubstantial length range over all the material that Freedman has gathered, but parts 4 and 5 are more historically focused: he first considers "Peasant Agency, Peasant Humanity," where most of the empowered and positive images ofthe peasant are late medieval, and then his final section, "The Revolt against Servitude," delineates events and especially concepts involved in the major peasant revolts, all from after 1350. In his final pages Freedman notes that the Black Death was a water­ shed; after it authority was more...

This study has two purposes. As a social-psychological contribution to the theory of translation, it points to some of the advantages and drawbacks of the researcher's participation in the translation of scientific texts. As a contribution to social-psychological theory, it wishes to demonstrate that forms of cooperation cannot be planned in abstracto, without taking the overall social activity of the actors into account, of which participation in cooperation is only one part. One of the most original and ingenious inventions in the social sciences dates back to the early 1950's: the game known as the Prisoner's Dilemma (see Rapoport 1982). With perplexing accuracy, it puts it quite plainly that, first, action taken by individuals upon perfectly rational deliberation does not necessarily lead to collective rationality. Also, showing how a social structure may produce forces motivating the individual, the Prisoner's Dilemma has something to give to social psychologists. Even in the event that the prisoners have had the opportunity to discuss different strategies and jointly decide on adopting one, each is tempted to betray the other - and both are afraid that they will be betrayed. Psychological motives, the temptation and the fear, arise out of the logic of the social situation. Our intention has been to show that translation as a social activity involves motivating forces, assumptions to do with competence, and restrictive factors that all shape the scientist-translator cooperation irrespective of their deliberate pursuits. Therefore, rather than planning it oh an abstract basis, the working method has to be deduced from the logic of action. In doing so, we will see that cooperation cannot be symmetric; the weight is necessarily on the translator's role. The scientist, then, comes into the picture when the translator needs help; he does not have to be prepared for regular and face-to-face interaction with the translator, but only to make sure that the message of his text is conveyed (provided that he has the competence in the target language). Cooperation between translator and editor, in turn, is much more dependent on face-to-face interaction.

ABSTRACT. The agency/structure relationship is not sufficiently explained by economic theory. On the one hand, neoclassical economics does not solve the problem because it leads to the actions of the agents, within an unrealistic representation of individual behaviour and of the capitalist system's functioning. On the other hand, the theoretical approaches that have most contributed to the analysis of capitalism such as Marxism and evolutionist Institutionalism, do not provide a complete explanation. The theoretical inadequacy is reflected in the empirical analysis: if the Marxist analysis has difficulty in interpreting the unforeseen development of capitalism in the twentieth century, the evolutionist-Institutionalist analysis fails to anticipate the centrality of conflicts between capital and labour and of the commodification of labour force in the development process. This work shows that the combination of the Marxist analysis of capitalism and of the individual action theory borrowed by evolutionist Institutionalism can provide a valid theoretical answer to the agency/structure problem and a strong support to the empirical analysis.JEL Classification: B13; B14; B15; P12Keywords: agency; structure; marxism; evolutionist-institutionalist; capitalism.1. The relationship between agency and structureThe relationship between individual action and social structure is a theoretical- methodological topic with important empirical implications. It is tied to many questions, ranging from the definition of the individual action (agency) and of the social structure (structure) to the forms of interaction between them, and finally to the superiority of one over the other in the interaction process.The relationship between agency and structure is very controversial in social science. An important part of the debate concerns the fundamental and distinctive characteristics of individual action: Is intentional and conscious action a specific prerogative of the human being? Is human behaviour always intentional and conscious or are there cases of unconscious and repetitive actions? Are individuals independent making their own choices freely, or is individual behavior conditional? How are the desires and objectives of agents formed?Of equal importance are the questions about the nature of the social structure: what is the essence of society? Is society simply the sum of several individuals, each with their own characteristics, or is it something more? If one accepts the hypothesis that the coexistence of individuals produces social relations, what is their nature? Is it possible to think that social relations are reproduced in time and space, acquiring more and more importance until they become social structures, i.e. the rules that govern and influence the interactions between agents? Is it possible to think that the analysis of society must include the study of individuals together with the study of social structures?Thus, the concepts of agency and structure are presented as opposites. The first refers to the individual and relates to the motivations behind the action, the will and the choice, the freedom and the intentionality. The second refers to the society and the environment in which individuals put their own choices into operation and act them out. The debate on the relationship between agency and structure raises other questions: how does social structure influence individual action? And, conversely, how does individual action create and transform social structure? What is the causal mechanism that links the two entities? Which one is dominant?In recent debate, the problem of the relationship between agency and structure has been addressed by two very different answers: methodological individualism and methodological collectivism. In reference to methodological individualism, the common assumption is that deliberate and conscious action is an exclusive feature of the human being and that social processes can be interpreted as an expression of the individual, of his characteristics, of his objectives and desires. …

Natural effects and social phenomena are not unchanging, but are the result of a combination of mental patterns, semantic structures, and ultimate approaches. Furthermore, they are constantly changing and are consistent with dialectical interactions, thus relating, limiting, and conditioning each other. Respect for the environment is a sign of the positive impact of citizenship rights on both managers and citizens. By considering the fact that the innovative performance of each country is determined by its national innovation system and due to the developments in the Islamic Republic of Iran, the conditions should be observed in such a way that the priorities of the national innovation management system guarantee sustainable ecosystems and determine, on a larger scale, complex structures. Structuring the priorities of the national innovation management system and the formation of substrates consistent with this structuring is inevitable. By considering the time requirements, capacities and public awareness of the process of growth, development, and progress of the country, the components of national innovation management models will improve by promoting the competitiveness in the country. Furthermore, enhancing the quality and standards of living, ensuring sustainable environment, human resource development, and social development will be reflected in the process cycle of sustainable development standards. The data were collected by a researcher-made questionnaire which was ordered based on the 5-point Likert scale, including 5 responses of very high, high, average, low and very low. The statistical population of the study included all individuals in sustainable ecosystems in the Islamic Republic of Iran. In this research, the target sample encompassing all individuals in sustainable ecosystems in Mazandaran province was estimated to be 384 individuals. The data of the research were analyzed and compared using statistical techniques of structural equation and artificial neural network modeling. The findings indicated that all dimensions, components, and variables of the conceptual model of the present research are explained in the prioritization of national innovation management models based on variables of sustainable ecosystems. Future researchers are recommended to use more sophisticated algorithms for the application of structural models to fit systematic models. Since national innovation management models have many complex variables, more advanced methods such as artificial neural networks should be employed to estimate these variables. Please cite this article as: Changizi R, Valiollahpur Muziraji M. Prioritizing the Components of National Innovation Management Models in the Process Cycle of Sustainable Development Standards by Structuring Sustainable Ecosystems. Bioethics Journal, Special Issue on Human Rights and Citizenship Rights 2019; 173-193.

This thesis describes the development of a process for fabricating single mode polymer waveguides. By systematic analysis of process parameters using basic waveguide components, the feasibilities and limits of this approach are given. The process is based on the UV-induced modification of the dielectric properties of polymethylmethacrylate. Two approaches for the lateral structuring of waveguides are used. In the first approach the lateral structuring is achieved by conventional photolithographic technique using a Quartz/chrome mask. The second approach uses in the first step the LIGA-technique to pre-emboss the polymer substrate. The embossed ridge or a groove structure serve as masking structures for and ensuing flood exposure. For the investigation of the photochemical reactions dependant on environmental process conditions, spectroscopic methods are used. The influence of additives or copolymerisation on photochemistry are studied using different homo- and copolymers. It can be shown that the dominating photochemical reactions are independent of the material used. During photolysis in ambient air, photooxidation products can be detected, which increase the absorption of the waveguides in the third optical window at 1550 nm. The second optical window at 1310 nm remains unaffected. The oxidation products can be avoided by exposing in an inert gas atmosphere or vacuum. A new process variant is achieved with respect to smaller irradiation doses, higher index contrast and higher thermal stability of the waveguides. It can be shown that the addition of bromium leads to higher index contrasts and higher glass transition temperatures of the waveguide materials. For the development of an integrated optical sensor, which is based on immobilized living cells on the waveguide surface, first investigations for immobilization of living cells on the waveguide structures have been successfully carried out. Cell adhesion of L929 fibroblast on the photochemical modified region of test structures was demonstrated. Furthermore the structuring of waveguides by masking with pre-embossed polymer substrates and following flood exposure was demonstrated. The approach using LIGA-techniques provide the opportunity to integrate the waveguides in a micro-optical bench. For demonstration, waveguides with passive fibre alignment structures have been successfully fabricated. The approach presented here provides the opportunities to have a mass fabrication process using replication technologies of a microoptical bench with integrated singlemode waveguides.

Propomos neste artigo refletir sobre o trabalho de construcao de “panteoes” e as praticas de eternizacao de “vultos” examinando duas publicacoes que se configuram em “galerias de notaveis”. Analisamos Perfis Academicos e Perfis de Cultura Popular, ponderando sobre: (i) a posicao social e politica dos agentes (biografos e biografados), definida em funcao dos recursos sobre os quais assentam sua “reputacao” e de inscricoes nas lutas culturais e politicas; (ii) as estrategias de estruturacao das obras, observando a selecao e a hierarquizacao dos casos, o espaco disponibilizado, as classificacoes atribuidas, entre outras; (iii) e os conteudos, as adjetivacoes, as definicoes, enfim, as representacoes explicitadas nos pre-textos e textos laudatorios. Com isso, podemos apreender os condicionantes de afirmacao, as logicas de atuacao e os mecanismos de consagracao mobilizados por agentes que se constituem como porta-vozes autorizados, bem como as multiplas tramas de notabilizacao de “interpretes” da cultura e da memoria regional no e do Maranhao. Palavras-chave: cultura, interpretes, panteao.

This chapter argues that Taiwan's industrialization can be characterized more accurately as a form of society-led development. The organization and economic dynamics of this sector can best be understood by recognizing the owners' connection to Taiwan's social organization—to the normative relationships, networks, organizations, and institutions that constitute Taiwan's society. It is this extra-state social organization that creates Taiwan's a symbolically dense, culturally specific environment in which economic decisions and activities are embedded. The existing social and economic organizations within a society influence the state's economic planners as much as, and likely more than, the state's planners shape that society's economic organizations. To demonstrate the significance of society's influence on the process of economic development, it is important to understand how Taiwan's economy is organized. The chapter shows that the institutional patterns of Chinese society, particularly the dynamics of relationships among families and friends, shape Taiwan's market culture, which in turn shapes the very organization of the economy itself.

Social network theory is an important paradigm of social structure research, which has been widely used in various fields of research. This paper reviews the development process and the latest progress of social network theory research and analyzes the research application of social network. In order to reveal the deep social structure, this paper analyzes the structure of social networks from three levels: microlevel, mesolevel, and macrolevel and reveals the origin, development, perfection, and latest achievements of complex network models. The regular graph model, P1 model, P2 model, exponential random graph model, small‐world network model, and scale‐free network model are introduced. In the end, the research on the social network structure is reviewed, and social support network and social discussion network are introduced, which are two important contents of social network research. At present, the research on social networks has been widely used in coauthor networks, citation networks, mobile social networks, enterprise knowledge management, and individual happiness, but there are few research studies on multilevel structure, dynamic research, complex network research, whole network research, and discussion network research. This provides space for future research on social networks.

This paper overviews and re-interprets accident causation in the British Building and Construction Industry (BCI), chosen because its accident rate is high. The paper, a preliminary report of ongoing work, suggests why incidences vary widely between different sites and workgroups. Explanation appears to lie not in variant technical complexity but variant social organisation. Four archetypal forms of organisation are identified derived from Cultural Theory via social anthropology that avoid personality explanations, and focus on micro social organisation. Different kinds of micro social organisation are known to differentially influence attitudes to authority and risk-taking, views of time, filtering of information and deviance. This approach focuses on the social side of socio-technical systems when most commentators over-emphasise the technical and it is also appropriate to more technologically complex industries. The paper concludes with a plea to collect accident statistics with emphasis on micro social components and offers a method – LISTORG – to order the social dimensions involved.

The subject of the research is the processes of formation and use of labor resources of agrarian enterprises, management of their development and improvement, regulation and support of employment of the population of rural territories. The purpose of the work is to identify the problem of the formation and use of labor resources of agrarian enterprises and to define the principles and substantiate the mechanisms of their improvement and development, state support and regulation with the involvement of the latest concepts of social responsibility, public-private partnership, social management. Methodological basis of the article became as general scientific, and special methods of scientific knowledge. Were used methods: dialectical, monographic, historical, system-structural analysis and synthesis, problem and program-target approaches. Results of work. The article deals with the problems and proposed principles and mechanisms of rational use of labor resources in agrarian enterprises, instruments of state regulation and support of employment of rural population. Of particular importance is the rationale for rational use of labor resources in agrarian enterprises as the main places of application of labor in the countryside. To this end, the article identifies the factors of employment of rural population in agribusiness, establishes the principles and mechanisms for managing it. The identified risks of the formation of labor resources and appropriate means of overcoming them. Measures of state regulation and support of labor resources of agrarian enterprises are developed. Particular attention is paid to the substantiation and development of employment programs, improvement and development of labor resources at the level of agrarian enterprises, rural territories, regions, countries. This provides a comprehensive program-targeted approach to solving this problem, taking into account the different vectors of global influences and involving modern concepts of sociologization of the market economy of the agrosphere - social responsibility, public-private partnership, social management, etc. The field of application of results. Conclusions and results of the article can be used in the educational-scientific process of the economic faculties of higher educational institutions. It is expedient to transfer them for practical use in the management of labor resources to agrarian enterprises, rural communities, relevant departments of rayon and regional state administrations. Conclusions. The functioning of agrarian enterprises as the most common rural businesses contributes to the full inclusion and effective functioning of market mechanisms that, objectively, through the free fluctuation of prices and earnings, balance the supply and demand for labor in the agrarian sector of the economy. It is also worth focusing on the coordination of employment activities with other areas of economic and social policy in the countryside on the basis of national and regional employment programs. This is one of the important principles that ensures the effectiveness of private and state measures in the field of agrarian labor throughout the country. The presented principles of management of labor resources and regulation of employment in the countryside should be supplemented, in our opinion, another not less important – the principle of advance. Its essence is to predict the development of processes in the market of agrarian labor, changes in its conditions and the definition of concrete decisions in the field of formation and use of labor resources of agrarian enterprises on this basis. This will ensure the best management of their development in the future. In developing the appropriate mechanisms one must rely on all the above principles in interaction, in other words, consider them as interdependent aggregate.

Based on the current national conditions of aging in China, this paper takes the study of Y social organization as the research object, explores the mode and path of Y social organization's correct participation in community elderly care service. It summarizes the value of Y organization's participation in community elderly care service, and the problems and difficulties faced in the development process, so as to further propose the optimization path and means. This research plays a positive role in the future development and improvement of Y organization and in the development of other social organizations.

In China, the relationship between government and social organizations has been promoting the emergence and development of social organizations directly, and studying the historical evolution of the relationship between them has much significance for the future development of social organizations. Since the foundation of China, the relationship between government and social organizations has experienced roughly 4 stages, including the period of control and management, the period of attachment and dependence, the period of half-attachment and half-independence, and the period of preliminary exploration of cooperative partnership. Through clearing up the development process, it's not hard to find that with the improvement of market economy and maturity of civil society, the two-way interaction between government and social organizations will increase gradually, and forming partnership in provision of public service is an inevitable trend.