Paul Howe Shepard: A Man Dedicated to Fruit, Fun, and Service

Raspberry is a valuable berry crop containing a large amount of antioxidants that correlates with the color of the berries. We evaluated the genetic diversity of differently colored raspberry cultivars by the microsatellite markers developed using the flavonoid biosynthesis structural and regulatory genes. Among nine tested markers, seven were polymorphic. In total, 26 alleles were found at seven loci in 19 red (Rubus idaeus L.) and two black (R. occidentalis L.) raspberry cultivars. The most polymorphic marker was RiMY01 located in the MYB10 transcription factor intron region. Its polymorphic information content (PIC) equalled 0.82. The RiG001 marker that previously failed to amplify in blackberry also failed in black raspberry. The raspberry cultivar clustering in the UPGMA dendrogram was unrelated to geographical and genetic origin, but significantly correlated with the color of berries. The black raspberry cultivars had a higher homozygosity and clustered separately from other cultivars, while at the same time they differed from each other. In addition, some of the raspberry cultivars with a yellow-orange color of berries formed a separate cluster. This suggests that there may be not a single genetic mechanism for the formation of yellow-orange berries. The data obtained can be used prospectively in future breeding programs to improve the nutritional qualities of raspberry fruits.

Breeding progress in black raspberry (Rubus occidentalis L.) has been limited by a lack of genetic diversity in elite germplasm. Black raspberry cultivars are noted for showing very few differences, and seedlings for a lack of segregation for important traits. Genetic fingerprinting using microsatellite, or simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers, can reliably identify unique clones and evaluate diversity in black raspberry cultivars. Twenty-one black raspberry cultivars were sampled from the USDA-ARS National Clonal Germplasm Repository (NCGR) in Corvallis, Oregon. Black raspberry clones were also sampled from nurseries, grower’s fields, and other black raspberry breeding programs for comparison. These genotypes were compared using 18 polymorphic SSR primer pairs. The black raspberries 'Bristol,' 'Jewel,' and 'Mac Black' had consistent SSR fingerprints between sources. However, plants being sold as 'Black Hawk' and 'Cumberland' had the same fingerprint as 'Jewel'. Plants of 'Bristol', 'Cumberland', 'Munger', 'New Logan', 'Plum Farmer' and 'Shuttleworth' in the NCGR collection had identical fingerprints. Eleven unique SSR fingerprints were found among plants being grown or sold as ‘Munger’, though there was one predominant fingerprint for this cultivar. 'Allen' and 'John Robertson' were each represented by three different fingerprints from three different sources, and 'Earlysweet' and 'Jewel' had SSR alleles at multiple loci that cannot be explained by their reported pedigrees. While overall genetic diversity in black raspberry cultivars is low, discrepancies in the naming of clones appear to be widespread in commercial and research plantings. Future work in this area should focus on sampling additional independent sources of plant material and evaluating clones to determine the extent of performance differences. Further SSR development in black raspberry may be needed to fingerprint some unique clones.

One hypothesis to account for the dramatic increase of inflammatory driven diseases, such as cancer, cardiovascular disease, obesity, diabetes, and others, across the world is the coincidental displacement of fruits and vegetables in the diet with processed foods as populations in the developing world rapidly acculturate to a more affluent lifestyle. Fruits are rich sources of antioxidant and anti-inflammatory natural compounds that offset many of the biological events leading to the development of the above-mentioned chronic diseases. In this review, potentially cancer-protective phytochemicals in fruits are reviewed to describe the research approaches, the range of chemistry and mechanisms seen in the study of the health benefits of fruit phytochemicals. Furthermore, given the rapid increase in research, public’s interest in the health benefits of food, and the government’s and food industry’s efforts to develop and promote healthy foods, fruit breeders have begun to investigate the feasibility of developing health-enhanced fruit cultivars. Thus far, there appears to be ample genetic variability within fruit crops to develop cultivars with higher levels of plant phytochemicals, such as total phenolics, anthocyanins, and antioxidant activity. Nevertheless, selecting breeding targets is elusive as there is little information on which specific phytochemical or combination of phytochemicals and the levels needed to effectively enhance the health of the consuming public.

As 19th century settlers on the northern Great Plains discovered, this region was one of the most inhospitable of any in the young nation for fruit production. Through the early 20th century this was a region with hundreds of thousands of small farms. The fruit from the farm orchard was eaten fresh in the summer, canned or dried for the winter, used to produce fermented beverages such as hard cider or apple jack, and sometimes provided additional income. More importantly, it provided critical nutritional components, as well as delight, in a sometimes bland and monotonous diet. However, the new farmers of the region soon realized that many fruit cultivars they brought from the eastern U.S. or from their native regions of Europe failed in the harsh winters and droughty summers of the continental climate. Consequently, they organized into state horticultural societies that developed lists of recommended cultivars based on members’ experiences and also identifi ed needs for new cultivar development. The Minnesota State Horticultural Society and the South Dakota State Horticultural Societies encouraged their legislatures to address the critical lack of adapted fruit cultivars by establishing productive fruit breeding programs at the experiment stations and land grant colleges in their respective states.

ABSTRACTLethal control of coyotes (Canis latrans) is a mechanism for increasing white‐tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) recruitment but can be difficult to implement and may be ineffective on small parcels of land because of coyote immigration. In 2003, we constructed 4 40‐ha mesopredator exclosures with the objective of quantifying the influence of mesopredators, including coyotes, on select wildlife populations and communities. Camera trapping indicated neonate/adult female white‐tailed deer ratios were approximately 2 times greater inside predator exclosures than in control plots. Hunter success data provided further evidence of increased recruitment associated with exclosures relative to the remainder of the study site. Because exclosures were located on the boundary of our study area and off‐site white‐tailed deer harvest records were not available, we used estimates of deer density, sex ratios, reproductive rates, relative use of exclosures, and neonate survival inside and outside of exclosures to parameterize a Monte Carlo simulation model to estimate the impact of our 4 exclosures on neonate recruitment into the start of the firearms hunting season on a 1,600‐ha area. After 1,000 iterations, we estimated that predator exclusion provided an additional 18 ± 0.13 ( ± SE; median = 15, interquartile range [IQR] = 9–24) recruits/year above that expected without exclusion. Simulated neonate/adult female ratio was 0.74 ± 0.03 (median = 0.72, IQR = 0.52–0.93) with exclosures and 0.41 ± 0.008 (median = 0.39, IQR = 0.21–0.58) without. Simulated exclosure impact on recruitment was most sensitive to white‐tailed deer relative use of exclosures and was least sensitive to neonate survival inside exclosures. We suggest that predator exclusion may be an effective mechanism for reducing neonate mortality and increasing white‐tailed deer recruitment in areas where neonate survival is affected by predation. Exclosures may be particularly valuable on small parcels of land where predator removal would be offset by immigration. Finally, exclosures provide refuge from predators throughout the year, and we hypothesize exclosures may also contribute to adult survival and reduce impacts of predation risk that may also affect white‐tailed deer population dynamics. Additional research incorporating variation in exclosure size and white‐tailed deer density is needed to better evaluate predator exclosures for creating neonate refugia and mitigating sub‐lethal impacts of predation. © 2015 The Wildlife Society.

Peasant landholding features prominently in studies of the late medieval English countryside. F. W. Maitland noted 'a brisk traffic was done in small parcels of land' by the unfree tenants of King's Ripton, and early studies seized upon rentals and surveys to explain peasant tenure under English feudalism. Tenure and the land market are critical in all these models, from the need to feed a growing population to conflict over rents and services to the opportunity of marketing produce. The most common units of landholding in England were the virgate and yardland, usually of fifteen and thirty acres, respectively; the northeastern analogues were the bovate or oxgang and the bondland or husbandland. At the end of the fourteenth century, whole tenures persisted in villages such as Newton Bewley, Southwick and Aycliffe alongside holdings of varying size.

Operationalizing religion in terms of both its official manifestations and an interrelated quasireligious meaning system, the present study analyzes the impact of religion on the quality of life for adherents of one of society's alternative lifestyles, the Back-to-the-Land Movement. Data from a mailed questionnaire returned by 510 (66.2 percent response rate) are presented. Back-to-the-landers, often part-time and self-employed professionals practicing semi-subsistence agriculture on small parcels of land, have an elaborate worldview that justifies their counter-cultural lifestyle on the basis of ecological wholeness, simple living and self-reliance. Both simple correlations and multiple regression models are explored in order to assess the impact of official and unofficial religion, back-to-the-land behaviors and background factors on measures of quality of life. Generally, the measures of unofficial religion, termed quasi-religious meaning systems, are the strongest predictors of quality of life. The fragmentation of formerly overarching symbolic universes into competing systems of meaning through the inter-related processes of industrialization, modernization, and secularization has been of both theoretical and empirical interest to social scientists and theologians. While the notion of the pluralization of life-worlds (Berger, Kellner & Berger, 1974) has taken on an axiomatic status, the actual identification of the consequent secular theodicies (Weber, 1963) has been much more problematic (Bainbridge & Stark, 1981; Bibby, 1983). The present study identifies one of the modem alternative meaning systems and its adherents, the back-to-the-land movement, and then examines in the context of a multivariate analysis the relationship of this quasi-religious belief system to quality of life (QoL). The back-to-the-land movement is in part a collective behavioral phenomenon. It consists primarily of former urban residents, many of them born and raised in rural areas, returning to the non-metropolitan countryside to take up residence and practice simple, semi-subsistence agriculture on small parcels of land (usually no more than 10 to 20 acres). One student of the movement estimates that there are now more than one million back

Relevance. One of the most important directions in the breeding and variety study of fruits, in particular domestic plum European, is the breeding of cultivars with high commercial and consumer qualities of fruits. In this regard, the assessment of some commercial and consumer qualities of fruits in plum cultivars of the RRIFCB gene pool was of great practical and scientific interest. Material and methods. As objects of research, we used 8 plum cultivars of the RRIFCB gene pool and a control cultivar of the RRIFCB breeding Bolkhovchanka. The studies were carried out on the basis of the laboratory of breeding and variety study of stone fruit crops of RRIFCB in 2015-2019. Determination of color, shape, average weight, taste, size of fruit, size and shape of the stone, density of pulp, separation and length of the stalk, color of the juice were carried out in accordance with the "Program and methodology for the variety study of stone fruit crops" and "Pomology". Results. Most of the studied plum cultivars from the gene pool of the Russian Research Institute for Fruit Crops Breeding have valuable commercial and consumer qualities of fruits, which will allow them to be used in further breeding for this trait. Cultivars Californiyskaya krupnaya, Zarechnaya rannyaya, Volgogradskaya can be recommended for further use in breeding as sources of high fruit mass. Cultivars Californiyskaya krupnaya and Bolkhovchanka can be recommended for further use in breeding as sources of high pulp content in fruits and fruit sizes. On the basis of the tasting assessment of the fresh fruits, the fruits of the cultivar Volgogradskaya stood out positively.

Firmness is an important selection criterium in the breeding of fruit, including strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa Duch.). Clear differences in fruit‐firmness are observed between cultivars. In order to identify candidate genes which might be associated with such textural differences, gene expression levels were compared for a soft and a firm cultivar (cv. Gorella and cv. Holiday, respectively). DNA‐microarrays representing 1701 strawberry cDNAs were used for simultaneous hybridization of two RNA populations derived from red ripe fruit of both cultivars. In total 61 clones (3.6% of the total cDNAs on the arrays) displayed differential expression, including 10 clones (8 different ones) which showed homology to cell wall related genes in the public databases. The results from the microarray experiments were further confirmed by RNA gel blots, which were also used to examine gene expression in a third cultivar, Elsanta, showing an intermediate texture phenotype (offspring of a cross between Gorella and Holiday). Interestingly, two genes encoding proteins catalysing successive reactions in lignin metabolism (cinnamoyl CoA reductase and cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase) showed the highest difference in expression level.

Lack of variation among black raspberry cultivars is thought to be a limiting factor in fruit production and in breeding improved cultivars. An assessment of the available diversity in black raspberry is needed to effectively develop improved cultivars. Such an assessment was done to estimate the genetic similarities for RAPD markers in 16 black raspberry genotypes and to determine the genetic diversity among these genotypes based on these markers. In addition, the ability to distinguish between the black raspberry genotypes, two red raspberry cultivars ( Rubus idaeus L.), and a blackberry cultivar ( Rubus hybrid) was determined. A similarity matrix from 379 RAPD markers was calculated, and a phylogenetic tree was constructed using the PHYLIP suite of phylogeny software, which revealed the relationship among the genotypes. An average of 81% similarity was calculated among 16 black raspberry genotypes with a maximum similarity of 98% and a minimum of 70%. The average similarity between black raspberry and red raspberry was 41% and was 26% between black raspberry and blackberry. Combined marker profiles from six RAPD primers could be used to distinguish between the 16 black raspberry genotypes. Red raspberry and blackberry could be distinguished from black raspberry by 27 and 29 of 30 RAPD primers tested, respectively. Genetic diversity was most prominent in genotypes from the extremes of the black raspberry indigenous range. Diversifying the germplasm pool for black raspberry cultivar improvement can be achieved through utilizing genotypes from the extremes of the black raspberry range and through interspecific hybridization.

Breeding progress in black raspberry (Rubus occidentalis L.) has been limited by a lack of genetic diversity in elite germplasm. Black raspberry cultivars have been noted for showing very few phenotypic differences and seedlings from crosses between cultivars for a lack of segregation for important traits. Despite these challenges, little molecular work has been done to explore genetic diversity and relationships in wild and cultivated black raspberry germplasm. Microsatellite, or simple sequence repeat (SSR), markers are highly polymorphic codominant markers useful for studying genetic diversity, population genetics, genetic fingerprinting and other applications. We examined genetic diversity in 148 wild and cultivated black raspberry accessions using 21 polymorphic SSR markers. Black raspberry cultivars clustered tightly and showed higher than expected heterozygosity while that of wild accessions was low. Relationships between wild black raspberry accessions were poorly resolved and regional clusters were mostly absent from our analysis. Our results indicated that wild black raspberry germplasm is a relatively untapped resource available for future breeding.

A survey of 99 resettled families displaced by construction of the Atatürk Dam in Turkey revealed that only a few of the families agreed to the resettlement plan and most of them resettled reluctantly. The compensation for this displacement was primarily monetary; however, the actual amount of the compensation did not reflect the market price of the land and most of the families presently own less land than they did prior to the resettlement. This resettlement adversely affected those who owned small parcels of land in particular, as many have stopped farming and are presently working as labourers or crop sharers. Many who owned large parcels of land were able to continue farming. The insufficient compensation offered by this project widened the disparity between these two groups.

This study estimates shadow prices for land parcel characteristics in Finland, such as size and distance from the compound, by adding these characteristics to the conditional profit maximisation model. The profit functions are production line-specific, and the endogenous choice of production line is controlled for by a switching-type Probit-model. The results suggest that the small parcel size and their long distances from the compound significantly affect the farmer choice of allocating most land either to grass or to grain. The endogenous choice of line of production also has significant statistical implications in relation to profits, output supplies and input demand. Small parcel size was found to increase costs significantly by hindering farmers from adopting the most efficient production technologies and practices. The ongoing rapid structural development in Finnish agriculture implies that the constraints imposed by small parcels of land are becoming more and more costly. Grassland farming is predicted to loose its comparative advantage in the most fragmented agricultural areas, as farm sizes increase further. Operations to re-structure parcels of land amongst a group of neighbouring farms, although often costly and time consuming, will generate high returns.

THE PROBLEM DEFINED Problems of adjusting the correlative rights of different operators entitled to exploit the same oil reservoir arise in the United States from the fact that a single reservoir may underlie many different small parcels of land whose owners may confer or exercise as parcels of land whose owners may confer or exercise as many independent rights to drill into the reservoir. The placing of all rights of ownership in petroleum in situ in the United Kingdom, and all rights exercisable in relation to petroleum in the seabed of the United Kingdom continental shelf, in the hands of the British Crown, could have operated to prevent such problems arising here. It has not done so, because of the Government's decision not to exploit that petroleum itself, but to involve as many private oil companies as possible in the undertaking by means of a licensing possible in the undertaking by means of a licensing system. In its application to the offshore area, the system involves the division of the territory into a large number of relatively small blocks. While a licensee may often hold two or more adjacent blocks, it has frequently been found that a discovered reservoir extends under a neighbouring block licensed to a different company or consortium. When this happens, the same kinds of issues relating to correlative rights arise as have troubled lawyers in the United States, only here the rights in question are not those of owners and their lessees, but of the licensee companies. Where a reservoir is found to extend under separately licensed blocks, the different licensees will normally seek to agree as to how and when it is to be exploited and in what proportions the oil is to be divided; and to judge from the lack of public controversy about the reservoirs of this kind in the North Sea, they usually succeed in the endeavour. This paper, however, considers the rights of the parties in the absence of such agreement, not in any spirit of pessimism, but because an appreciation of the nature and extent of those rights is an important element of information for the parties negotiating such an agreement. parties negotiating such an agreement. INVOKING THE POWERS OF THE MINISTER In the North Sea we are operating at the frontiers not only of technology, but also of law. The legal situation is both complex and uncertain: complex by reason of the interaction of international and national law regulating operations on the continental shelf, uncertain because of the absence of any authoritative judicial decisions regarding English or Scots law on rights connected with oil in situ. The lawyer must therefore work by a process of inference and analogy, and often he will be faced with a choice of analogies, which may point in opposite directions. Amid this uncertainty it seems best to start on the firmest ground: the relationship between the Minister and the licensee, constituted by the licence. No-one doubts that this is a contractual relationship, though we may remark in passing that it is a contract with strong regulatory elements, both procedurally, in the legislative requirement to promulgate procedurally, in the legislative requirement to promulgate model clauses, and substantively, in that the licence gives the Minister substantial powers to control the licensee's activity. Indeed, two of our neighbouring jurisdictions, Norway and France, draw a distinction, as regards legal effect, between the regulatory and purely contractual terms of licences. We do not. purely contractual terms of licences. We do not. Among the contractual rights, therefore, of the Minister under the licence is the right in clause 26 to require each licensee interested in a single geological petroleum structure or petroleum field to participate in an agreed scheme for the unit development of that field. We shall follow the licence clauses in using henceforward the term "field", while remarking that in the ordinary language of the oil industry "field" is a broader concept than "pool" or "reservoir" and that the absence of detailed definition in the clause could well give rise to argument as to the very existence of the basic condition for unitisation when complex structures are encountered. This right may, however, only be exercised where the Minister considers that unit development "is in the national interest in order to secure the maximum ultimate recovery of petroleum and in order to avoid unnecessary competitive drilling". These are strict and narrow conditions, not all of which may be present in every case of a shared field. present in every case of a shared field. P. 73

In India, temperate fruit cultivation is spread over 350,000 hectares with an annual production of nearly 1.6 million MT. Apple occupies 50% of this area. It is followed by pears, Japanese plums, peaches, apricots, seedling walnuts and almonds. The varietal improvement of these crops in the past has been solely through introduction and selection of better performing cultivars in a particular climatic region. These have a good adaptation and are grown on a commercial scale. As far as improvement through hybridization is concerned, sporadic attempts have been made. Some improved cultivars of apple, apricot, peach and almond have been evolved through hybridization but these have not gained much popularity. The possible reasons of limited success in fruit breeding are considered to be the lack of continuity and specific gene sources and mis-directed strategy. In this paper, an attempt has been made to delineate crop specific objectives, gene sources and breeding strategy to evolve improved fruit and nut cultivars.