Pathways to Post-Secondary Success: Applying Situated Expectancy-Value Theory to the Experiences of Students With Disabilities and Their Peers

Completion of upper secondary education marks the minimum threshold for successful labour market entry and continued employability as suggested by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Developments (OECD's) annual indicators on education and associated labour market outcomes (OECD, 2015). On average across OECD countries, unemployment risk of younger adults (25–34 year-olds) who have not completed upper secondary education is almost double the risk of those with higher educational qualifications (upper secondary and postsecondary nontertiary education). A maintained focus on completion rates are necessary. Even though enrolment rates among 15–16 year olds (i.e., those typically in upper secondary programmes) are high; at least 95% on average across OECD countries in 2015 (OECD, 2018); far from all students graduate. According to OECD, only approximately 75% of students who had enroled had graduated after two years. Further, of the students who had not graduated, 80% were no longer enroled in education. Many countries set specific targets for the completion rates of upper secondary education. For example, the countries in the European Union (EU) agreed on a 10-year strategy proposed by the European Commission on March 3, 2010, for advancement of the economy of the EU (Europe, 2020). One of the main targets is to reduce the share of early school leavers to 10% from the (at that time) current 15% and increase the share of the population aged 30–34 having completed tertiary from 31% to at least 40% (European Commission, 2010). Some countries go even further as, for example, Denmark, setting as a specific target, that upper secondary completion rates should be 95% and tertiary enrolment and completion rates should be 60% by 2020 (OECD, 2013a). Not only graduation rates are important, the quality of the education received also matters for the educational prospects of young people and successful entry into the labour market. The shares of neither employed nor in education or training (NEET) are negatively related to the skill levels among young people (OECD, 2017a). The OECD's Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) tests students near the end of their compulsory education (usually around age 15) on their reading ability, their skills in math and level in sciences. In general, the higher the percentage of low-performing 15-year-old students in PISA, the higher the percentage of NEETs among 15–19 year-olds (OECD, 2017a). Having acquired some of the knowledge and skills that are essential for full participation in modern societies, particularly in reading, mathematics and science may be more reliable predictors of economic and social well-being than the number of years spent in school or in postformal education (OECD, 2016). Research based on the 2012 Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) finds that poor proficiency in numeracy and literacy limits access to rewarding and well-paid jobs, and in addition is linked to poorer health and less social and political participation (OECD, 2013b). There is, for these reasons, a significant interest in information about effective interventions to increase academic achievement and enhance educational prospects. The review we plan to conduct will focus on service learning in primary and secondary education. Service Learning is curriculum-based community service that integrates classroom instruction with community service activities. The connection with specific courses and having clearly stated learning objectives is what distinguishes service learning from other forms of volunteer work. Service learning should "address real community needs in a sustained manner over a period of time; and assist students in drawing lessons from the service through regularly scheduled, organised reflection of critical analysis activities, such as classroom discussions, presentations, or directed writing" (Pritchard, 2002, p. 20). Well-designed service-learning activities can deepen learning and foster higher-order thinking skills by providing students with opportunities to apply their learning to a challenging situation or problem in their community. The development of service learning as a pedagogical method that integrates community service into the course curriculum began in the 1970s, primarily in the United States (Spring et al., 2008). In the nineties, service learning became institutionalised in public education in the United States (Peterson & Seligman, 2004). In 1990 in United States, the National and Community Service Act created Serve America (later named Learn and Serve America), which was a federal programme dedicated to providing grants and other supports for service learning activities in schools and community-based organisations. Further, in 1994, service learning became a recognised method for meeting the aims of federal school funding (included in the Elementary and Secondary Education Act). In addition to these federal policies, several states and school districts mandated the incorporation of service learning into the course curriculum (Spring et al., 2008). Service learning is not yet as widespread in the rest of the world. However, the OECD-project "Innovative Learning Environments" mentions service learning as a pedagogical method to put learners at the centre (the first of the seven principles of learning needed to redesign the learning environments to meet the challenges of the 21st century) (Dumont et al., 2010). According to Furco (2010) "service-learning is one of the fastest growing educational initiatives in contemporary primary, secondary and post-secondary education" (Furco, 2010, p. 228). Outside of the United States, service-learning initiatives are part of the education systems of Argentina, Columbia and Singapore (Chua, 2010; Ierullo, 2016; Perold & Tapia, 2008). Argentina hosts the Latin American Center for Service-Learning (CLAYSS) which was created in 2002 to support students, educators and community organisations in the development of service-learning projects in Latin America. Service learning is not part of any educational policy in Europe although the EU recognises service learning as a way of achieving citizenship education (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2017). Service learning is however emerging in many European countries including Germany, Ireland, Italy, Spain and the United Kingdom (Furco, 2010) and currently CLAYSS is assisting in the creation of the Central and Eastern European Service-Learning Network (Regina & Ferrara, 2017). In several European nations there are organisations (nonprofit community-based) with programmes dedicated to providing supports for service learning activities in schools (Luna, 2012): Lernen durch Engagement in Germany, Center for Frivilligt Socialt Arbejde in Denmark, Lernen durch Engagement in Switzerland, Noi-orizonturi in Romania, MOVISIE in the Netherlands and Fundación Tomillo in Spain. School-based service-learning is a teaching strategy that explicitly links community service to academic instruction (Billig, 2000). In the United States, "service-learning" is an official term used by policy makers and educational leaders. Service-learning is distinctive from traditional voluntarism or community service in that it intentionally connects service activities with curriculum concepts and includes structured time for reflection. Service-learning is not an add-on to an existing curriculum, a requirement of a minimum hours of service to graduate or service assigned as punishment. Rather, students are required to use academic knowledge and skills to address genuine community needs. A clarifying example is given by the National Youth Leadership Council (https://www.nylc.org/page/our-philosophy): "Picking up trash on a river bank is service. Studying water samples under a microscope is learning. When science students collect and analyze water samples, document their results and present findings to a local pollution control agency—that is service-learning". Service learning programmes can take many forms and are very diverse in content. However, a common set of elements are critical for a success full implementation of service learning. The National Youth Leadership Council and RMC Research Associates have developed a set of eight quality service-learning standards (the K-12 Service-Learning Standards for Quality Practice) with input from youth, teachers, administrators, youth agencies, policymakers, community members and other stakeholders. The standards are: Meaningful service: Service-learning actively engages participants in meaningful and personally relevant service activities. Link to curriculum: Service-learning is intentionally used as an instructional strategy to meet learning goals and/or content standards. Reflection: Service-learning incorporates multiple challenging reflection activities that are ongoing and that prompt deep thinking and analysis about oneself and one's relationship to society. Diversity: Service-learning promotes understanding of diversity and mutual respect among all participants. Youth voice: Service-learning provides youth with a strong voice in planning, implementing and evaluating service-learning experiences with guidance from adults. Partnerships: Service-learning partnerships are collaborative, mutually beneficial and address community needs. Progress monitoring: Service-learning engages participants in an ongoing process to assess the quality of implementation and progress toward meeting specified goals and uses results for improvement and sustainability. Duration and intensity: Service-learning has sufficient duration and intensity to address community needs and meet specified outcomes. The complete document can accessed at https://www.nylc.org/page/standards. Research shows that the students who participate in service learning may benefit both personally, socially and academically (e.g., Celio et al., 2011; RMC Research Corporation, 2002). Service learning, by connecting education to real world issues and allowing students to address problems they identify, may be particularly efficacious as it increases engagement and motivates students, in particular students who might not respond well to more traditional teaching methods (see, e.g., Bridgeland et al., 2008; Kraft & Wheeler, 2003; Scales & Roehlkepartain, 2005). Motivation for learning and school engagement play a critical role in students' academic success (e.g., Fan & Wolters, 2014; Skaalvik & Valas, 1999). Motivated students tend to do better at school. According to OECD, students who are among the most motivated score the equivalent of more than one school year higher in PISA than the least-motivated students and motivation is further positively related to life satisfaction (OECD, 2017b). Theoretically, Kolb's (1984) model of experiential learning is often referred to as the foundation for understanding how service-learning might work. Experiential learning theory defines learning as "The process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience" and knowledge is defined as: "a transformation process being continuously created and recreated, not an independent entity to be acquired or transmitted" (Kolb, 1984, p. 38). Kolb further suggests that experiential approaches to learning such as service-learning are better at accommodating learners with different learning styles than traditional didactic approaches such as classroom-based teaching. Experiential learning is inspired by pragmatist philosopher John Dewey's six-step process of experiential logical inquiry. According to Dewey the six steps are: (1) encountering a problem, (2) formulating a problem or question to be resolved, (3) gathering information which suggests solutions, (4) making hypotheses, (5) testing hypotheses and (6) making warranted assertions (Dewey, 1938; Giles & Eyler, 1994; Kolb,1984). Kolb's (1984) model comprises these steps into a four stage experiential learning cycle involving: Concrete Experiences, Reflective Observation, Abstract Conceptualisation and Active Experimentation (Cone & Harris, 1996; Kolb, 1984). Based on this conception, students participating in service-learning are engaged in a cycle in which their work in the community promotes written and/or oral reflection. Under the guidance of teachers or instructors, reflective work may be used to form abstract concepts and generate hypotheses, which may then be cycled back into further concrete experiences. According to Kolb this way of learning allows a variety of students with different learning styles and abilities to develop and integrate their skills (Cone & Harris, 1996). Service-learning provides an opportunity for students to move between perceiving new information through experiencing the concrete, tangible, felt qualities of the world within the community and taking hold of new information through abstract conceptualisation, thinking and analyzing. The pattern in which a learner moves between these levels of experience are thought to reflect an individual learning style, and service-learning is thought to allow each student to move between the levels in a way consistent with their own learning style (Kolb et al., 2002). Another strand of theory which offers a potential understanding of the theory of change behind service-learning is Situated Learning. The term "situated learning" refers to learning that occurs within a particular and authentic context through the individual's social participation. Rather than focusing on learning as a primarily cognitive process involving a number of tasks, situated learning theorists study the process in which individuals become new members of a learning community. According to the theory newcomers within a learning community move from a state of legitimate peripheral participation to full participation through a process that involves continuous negotiation, collaboration and reflection (Wolfson & Willinsky, 1998). In their often cited work: "Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation", Lave and Wenger (1991) focus on acquisition of skills and knowledge that takes place outside of traditional schooling within communities of practice. Based on an ethnographic investigation of traditional and nontraditional apprenticeships in Mexico, Liberia and the United States, Lave and Wenger propose that learning should not be viewed as the mere transmission of knowledge but as a distinctly embedded and active process. Learning is thus perceived as a contextualised process in which content is learned through doing activities. Furthermore, Lave and Wenger suggest that motivation too is "situated", as learners are naturally motivated by their growing value of participation (Lave & Wenger, 1991). Based on this approach students participating in service-learning inherently become motivated to learn as this enables them to move from being novices to becoming full participants within the learning community. Furthermore, students participating in service-learning may become motivated as they experience how their own participation increases in value as they progress from being newcomers towards the centre of the community of practice. In situated learning the construction of meaning is seen as being tied to specific contexts and purposes. For students participating in service-learning this may be particularly important, as service learning may enable them to socially construct meaning which makes learning matter beyond school. Two systematic reviews with meta-analyses are found in Conway et al. (2009) and Celio et al. (2011), both performing searches up to spring 2008. The review by Conway et al. (2009) analysed four outcomes: academic, personal, social and citizenship outcomes. They included studies of community service or volunteerism as well as service learning without distinguishing between these very different types of interventions (except in a moderator analysis), participants were not limited to primary and secondary education (although all results were shown separately for grade kindergarten to 12 students but without distinguishing between community service or volunteerism and service learning) and many of the included studies did not have control groups. The review by Celio et al. (2011) required included studies to analyse service learning using a control group but participants were not limited to primary and secondary education. Five outcome areas were analysed: attitudes toward self, attitudes toward school and learning, civic engagement, social skills and academic achievement. Separate results for primary and secondary education (grades kindergarten to 12) was only shown for the overall effect, that is, the mean of the five outcomes attitudes toward self, attitudes toward school and learning, civic engagement, social skills and academic achievement. The analysis of primary and secondary education outcomes did not take into consideration that more than one outcome per study was included in the meta-analysis (i.e., they did not take into account the dependencies between the effect sizes). Besides being up to date, the major differences between these two systematic reviews and the current proposal are that we will focus on service learning for primary and secondary education, only include studies with a control group, all relevant outcomes areas will be analysed separately and we will take into consideration the dependencies between effect sizes. In addition, there are several literature reviews of studies conducted in the United States (Billig, 2000, 2002, 2003, 2004). None of them is a systematic review and no data synthesis is performed in any of them. The review we plan to do differs in substantial ways from these existing reviews. It is systematic and a meta-analysis will be conducted. The main objective of this review is to answer the following research question: What are the effects of service learning on academic success, NEET status, personal and social skills and risk behaviour of students in primary and secondary education (grades kindergarten to 12)? Further, we will investigate the following factors with the aim of explaining potential observed heterogeneity: study-level summaries of participant characteristics (e.g., studies considering a specific gender, age or socioeconomic level or studies where separate effects for girls/boys, primary school/secondary school or low/high socioeconomic status are available) and quality of the service learning programme according to the standards as outlined in section The intervention. The moderator analysis will be performed as outlined in section Moderator analysis and investigation of heterogeneity. The proposed project will follow standard procedures for conducting systematic reviews using meta-analysis techniques. Randomised controlled trials will be included. In order to summarise what is known about the possible causal effects of service learning, we will include all study designs that use a control group, that is, a group of students not participating in service learning. The control group may be offered treatment as usual or an alternative treatment. The study designs we will include in the review are: Randomised and quasi-randomised controlled trials (allocated at either the individual level or cluster level, e.g., class/school/geographical area etc.). Nonrandomised studies (service learning has occurred in the course of usual decisions, the allocation to service learning and no service learning is not controlled by the researcher, and there is a comparison of two or more groups of participants, i.e., at least a treated group and a control group). Studies using single group pre-post comparisons will not be included. Nonrandomised studies using an instrumental variable approach will not be included—see the Appendix (Justification of exclusion of studies using an instrumental variable (IV) approach) for our rationale for excluding studies of these designs. A further requirement to all types of studies (randomised as well as nonrandomised) is that they are able to an Studies for example, the treatment is given to teachers in one school only and the comparison group is teachers at school more schools for that separate the treatment effect from the school Even within of teachers in may mean that have to be at the level to be able to a situation of not being able to separate treatment effect from The review will include in primary and secondary education (grades kindergarten to 12) in education. The included to primary and secondary defined as the first two steps in a educational of primary education, secondary education and tertiary or higher education. The number of years a primary schooling across the OECD countries, though most often primary schooling is or after which secondary education (e.g., in the form of The is the for in and most of and the is the for school systems in countries such as Italy, and The age included will between countries, and between states within from to In some countries, kindergarten can however to programmes outside of primary school and include to years. Service learning such will be that is, kindergarten be a part of primary school for a study to be included. to secondary defined as the in a educational The number of years a secondary schooling across the OECD countries, though most often secondary schooling is or The is the for in and most of and the is the for school systems in countries such as Italy, and The age included will between countries, and between states within will from to Studies that meet will be from all will in school and in Service Learning is a curriculum-based community service that integrates classroom instruction as classroom discussions, presentations, or directed with community service activities. Service learning may be or and should have service activities that take place outside of the It should take place in the community including the school as part of the community. Service learning is organised in to an academic course or curriculum and has clearly stated learning Service learning should address real community needs and students in drawing lessons from the service through regularly scheduled, organised reflection or critical Community service or activities that do not integrate classroom instruction will be The primary focus is on of academic success and NEET status employed nor in education or training compulsory The primary outcomes are: on students' achievement tests education, training on students' achievement only will be that is, tests (e.g., and tests (e.g., of tests (e.g., National Assessment of and of academic (e.g., of we do not to studies follow up outcomes in the compulsory NEET status is included as a primary A secondary focus is on of personal and social skills and attitudes towards and risk behaviour as and risk by or by personal and social only and reliable outcomes that have on a different population is i.e., not will be included. of outcomes are from the Skills & or the of the the Skills Scales & and the Scales & 1999). Studies will only be included they at least one of the primary or secondary outcomes. it is not from the of outcome in the studies they are we will use to a is or will not where have a of from a It will be any potential effects have in any included Duration of for will year follow up year follow up than year follow up of The of the is primary and secondary education (grades kindergarten to 12) in public or will be studies will be through searches in literature and in specific to and will be Center example of the strategy used for the on the is The will be to the and of the different literature literature will be & National Research Education Commission of the National Youth Leadership Research American for Center for and Research on Learning and of literature might be the process. specific will be International for Research on Service-Learning and Education of Experiential Education of of of and in the Community in Service-Learning Research The International of Research on Service-Learning and Community Engagement In order to both studies and literature we will primary strategy will be to related and The review will also of included primary studies for new with will to and ongoing Randomised controlled trials are but we that a of studies will be conducted without of participants. Studies of the effect of service learning are required to have a control group for in the may be for example, time policy or participant They all group or of on risk and participant The will be according to the risk of model outlined in section of risk of in included The risk of makes it possible to between studies with of Studies that have with a risk of will not be included in the data example of a study that may be included is et al. in which students at one school were assigned by classroom to either a for classroom curriculum or a for service learning Another Scales et al. assigned students in schools to where after schools which of their be service-learning and which be control A of analysis of were conducted to service-learning students with control students with on the as the A

Academic success is an important issue as employers are looking for individuals with a postsecondary education. But there are many important indicators of success besides grades. We conceptualized academic success at postsecondary as grade point average, acquisition of knowledge and skills, and overall satisfaction and examined how each conceptualization was predicted by student characteristics (perceived academic ability and drive to achieve) and experiences (academic and social integration). Using a 1-year longitudinal design, we found that perceived academic ability had a positive direct effect on grade point average and acquisition of knowledge and skills but not satisfaction, whereas drive had no direct relationships with the outcomes. Academic integration positively predicted all three indicators of success grades, but social integration was not associated with grades. Indirect effects were also noted. Our discussion highlights actions that postsecondary institutions can take to support students and considers how researchers should conceptualize student success.

Given the history of poor postschool outcomes for students with disabilities, researchers repeatedly sought to demonstrate the links between predictor variables and postschool outcomes for students with disabilities. This secondary data analysis used the National Longitudinal Transition Study–2 to examine the relationship between postsecondary education–related transition services and postsecondary education participation for students with learning disabilities. Logistic regression analyses indicated receiving core content area instruction in the general education classroom was positively related to postsecondary education participation. Frequency distributions indicated students with learning disabilities attended 2-year college at higher rates than other postsecondary education programs. The results suggest educators should consider inclusion in general education classroom for core content area instruction for students with learning disabilities with postsecondary education goals to the extent permitted by their least restrictive environment.

We examined the prevalence and correlates of postsecondary education and employment among youth with an autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Data were from a nationally representative survey of parents, guardians, and young adults with an ASD. Participation in postsecondary employment, college, or vocational education and lack of participation in any of these activities were examined. Rates were compared with those of youth in 3 other eligibility categories: speech/language impairment, learning disability, and mental retardation. Logistic regression was used to examine correlates of each outcome. For youth with an ASD, 34.7% had attended college and 55.1% had held paid employment during the first 6 years after high school. More than 50% of youth who had left high school in the past 2 years had no participation in employment or education. Youth with an ASD had the lowest rates of participation in employment and the highest rates of no participation compared with youth in other disability categories. Higher income and higher functional ability were associated with higher adjusted odds of participation in postsecondary employment and education. Youth with an ASD have poor postsecondary employment and education outcomes, especially in the first 2 years after high school. Those from lower-income families and those with greater functional impairments are at heightened risk for poor outcomes. Further research is needed to understand how transition planning before high school exit can facilitate a better connection to productive postsecondary activities.

Technological changes in the workplace have placed considerable pressure on the U.S. educational system to prepare students for increasingly skillbased occupations. Employers reward new hires for having the skills or credentials needed for their job, underscoring the importance of having either the requisite “tools in your toolbox,” or some basic academic preparation to continue on into postsecondary education. This stress on knowledge acquisition has contributed to a growing wage gap between high school and college graduates. Whether occupational education at the high school level, with its focus on immediate workforce entry after high school, adequately prepares students for college is a public concern. Since students who enroll in these programs are less likely to transfer to a four-year college to obtain a bachelor’s degree, occupational education is criticized for hampering their future earnings. Some of the criticisms of postsecondary occupational education could be allayed if the economic benefits were equal to (or greater than) those of other types of education. This Brief investigates the economic benefits of a community college education by analyzing the effects on post-college earnings of a student’s program of study (occupational or academic), the amount of schooling accumulated with and without attaining a degree, and the type of credential earned.

The number of students with learning disabilities (LD) enrolling in postsecondary education has increased rapidly over the past decade. It is imperative to investigate what interventions have been used to assist students with LD in achieving academic success. To examine the interventions currently used to support students with LD in postsecondary education, the authors reviewed the relevant literature from 2000 to 2016. Four primary types of interventions were identified from 12 articles: assistive technology, direct assistance, strategy instruction, and comprehensive support program. The findings indicate that the student-centered approach is an important characteristic of current academic interventions for students with LD in postsecondary education. The authors also provide implications for researchers and practitioners for improving postsecondary interventions on students with LD.

The present article deals with the research in formation of educational environment on the basis of the principle of integration for formation and development of different levels and kinds of professional competences training the future engineers of agricultural production. The aim of the research is organising the educational environment in education of engineers that helps in formation and development of different levels and kinds of professional competences, acquisition of the teaching material more effectively, acquisition of fundamental knowledge and skills to apply this knowledge. In the research the methods of investigation in the educational environment were used, as well as the methods of analysis studying the pedagogical experience of teachers at agrarian universities, pedagogical experiment, and statistical methods in calculation of the results of pedagogical experiments. The research concept is based on the fact that the professional training of future engineers in higher educational institutions is aimed not only at the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities, which are determined by the educational and qualification characteristics, but also at the acquisition of skills and abilities to organize independent work on the study of software material. Achieving this goal is possible under the conditions of the introduction of personally-oriented learning technologies, ensuring thorough motivation of students, providing material and methodological support and developing rational mechanisms for end-to-end programming of individual independent work according to the principle of the “tree of goals”, i.e. end-to-end execution of small independent works: essays, calculation works , graphic, calculation-graphic, creative, descriptive in the calculation of their thematic entry into more capacious independent works - term papers and projects, which, in turn, are included in qualifying diploma theses or projects. The methodology of integrative-transparent organisation of the educational activities of the students at agrarian universities is universal and can be used also for other specialties. The results of the pedagogical experiment showed increase in student success what proves the efficiency of application of the research results. The results of the research showed also the influence of the organised professional orientation activities of students in learning fundamental subjects on the motivation for learning and professional interests. Motivation to acquire the fundamental subjects and interest in profession also had a trend to improve. Improvement of student achievements in studies, motivation level and professional interests prove the efficiency of the results of the performed research in formation of the organisation principles of student activities.

Research indicates that persons with disabilities who obtain some level of postsecondary education are more likely to be employed compared to those who have no postsecondary education experience. The problem is that often people with disabilities are not able to overcome the barriers that exist in obtaining postsecondary education. When they do enroll in postsecondary education they often experience difficulty staying in, and completing their programs. The purpose of this research was to determine if assistive technology, in the form of voice recognition software, could assist in overcoming some of the barriers that exist for people with learning disabilities. The study sought to determine if voice recognition software was an effective compensatory strategy for students with learning disabilities in postsecondary education and the experiences of these students in relationship to their use of the software. Follow-up data will be collected to determine if the software is an effective compensatory strategy for the participants in their future employment.

Acquisition of knowledge, generic skills and attitudes through problem-based learning: Student perspectives in a hybrid curriculum

According to the Ontario Human Rights Commission of 2005, learning disabilities represent the largest group of disabilities seeking to access post secondary education. Learning disabilities (LD), in general, are on the rise and showing up at all levels of education. “During the past 25 years, increasing numbers of students with learning disabilities have enrolled in colleges and universities” (Estrada, Dupoux, & Wolman, 2006, p. 43). The transition to college is marked by complex challenges in academic and social adjustment particularly for students with disabilities (Alcorn McKay, 2010).

The transition from high school to adulthood for the disabled has become a required process under federal and state laws, and includes the process of making postsecondary education choices. This study compared postsecondary plans of 104 high school graduates with learning disabilities (LD) and emotional disturbance (ED). Disability severity was measured by minutes of special education service time received each week while in high school. The hypothesis was that with increased levels of disability, the student would be more likely not to seek further postsecondary education, and less likely to go on to a four-year university. Students with LD were expected to be more likely to seek a “hands on” experience and avoid the traditional academic lecture setting. Students with ED were expected to be even less likely to pursue any type of postsecondary education including vocation/technical programs. Results found that there was little difference between LD and ED students in the distribution of their postsecondary plans. On the average, 49% sought no further education of any type, while 28% chose vocation/technical programs and 23% chose a two or four-year university. No statistically reliable effects were found between disability severity and postsecondary plan, though a post hoc analysis found a non-significant increase in students’ decisions not to seek postsecondary education with increasing disability severity.

Students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are attending postsecondary programs at unprecedented rates. Transitions are especially challenging for students with ASD, yet little is known about critical transitions during the college experience. Using the College Adjustment Program Evaluation Scales (CAPES), we examined student and parent perspectives across five dimensions: Student Life, Emotional Adjustment, Independent Living Skills, Interpersonal Relationships, and Self-Advocacy. Sixteen participants--eight students and eight parents, completed the CAPES at the end of fall semester of year one and the end of spring semester year two. Student and parent CAPES ratings were uniformly positive with some differences. We found large effect sizes across dimensions and significant differences in Student Life, Independent Living, and Interpersonal Relationships with parent ratings higher than student ratings. An item analysis revealed specific challenges and skills salient to the results. Implications for supports for students with ASD, higher education practices, and transition research are discussed. Keywords: autism spectrum disorder, transition, college, postsecondary education ********** The purpose of postsecondary education (PSE) and the pathways to it are multifaceted. Postsecondary/higher education in the U.S. has evolved across time (Renn & Reason, 2013), and institutions of higher education have developed empirically-based strategies to serve an increasingly diverse student population and improve the first year experience of students (Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005). Whether or not a student has a disability, the value of PSE to the student and to society are pivotal issues in the current debate over the goal of PSE. Mayhew and colleagues (2016) synthesized over 1,800 studies related to student development during college and report positive long-term effects on cognitive development, critical thinking, academic self-concept, locus of control, independence, self-efficacy, and psychological well-being to name a few. The effects of college on students with disabilities, however, is seldom addressed in the higher education and student affairs literature (Hendrickson, Therrien, Weeden, Pascarella, & Hosp, 2015). Although research is scant, the studies that are available indicate that PSE opportunities appear to significantly improve the transition to adulthood and long-term life outcomes (e.g., academic skills, employment, quality of life) of youth with disabilities (Hart, Grigal, & Weir, 2010; Neubert & Redd, 2008). Preliminary psychological wellbeing data indicate that students with ASD and cognitive disabilities and their typical college counterparts are similarly affected by college (Hendrickson, Vander Busard, Rodgers, & Scheidecker, 2013). Hendrickson et al. (2015) compared a national sample of first year college students with and without cognitive disabilities on student engagement and their perceptions of academic challenge, active and collaborative learning, student-faculty interaction, the campus environment, and educationally enriching experiences. They found that students with intellectual disabilities who attended a structured, inclusive, campus-based program did not differ significantly from typical college students in their responses to the National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE; Pascarella, Seifert, & Blaich, 2010). McGregor and colleagues (2016) report that college students with learning disabilities (LD) were less satisfied with their college experience than other students, had more obstacles caused by nonacademic responsibilities, and felt that there was a bias against individuals with disabilities. McGregor and colleagues' data showed that students with LD who sought and received accommodations were in more frequent contact with faculty and experienced less difficulty with assignments than peers with LD who did not. …

Supporting Students With Intellectual and Developmental Disability in Postsecondary Education Andrew Scheef (bio), Aleksandra Hollingshead (bio), and Brenda Barrio (bio) Following a sustained increase in the number of inclusive educational experiences in K–12 settings (U.S. Department of Education, 2019), higher education institutions (HEIs) are offering opportunities for students with intellectual and developmental disability (IDD) to engage in inclusive postsecondary education (IPSE; Think College, 2019). Although many students with mild disabilities (e.g., learning disabilities or ADHD) are able to succeed in college with disability support services, these supports are not enough for individuals with IDD. As a result, IPSE opportunities may be available to students with any number of conditions that make traditional entrance requirements unattainable (e.g., Down Syndrome, Autism Spectrum Disorder). Postsecondary education opportunities for students with IDD can be traced back to the 1970s (Neubert, Grigal, Moon, & Redd, 2001) and are currently offered at more than 270 HEIs (Think College, 2019). The reauthorization of the Higher Education Opportunity Act (HEOA, 2008) provided the foundation for significant growth of IPSE. Most notably, the HEOA outlined a process by which schools offering postsecondary education opportunities for students with IDD can obtain a comprehensive transition program status, which makes students eligible for need-based federal financial aid (with the exception of student loans). Through this and other provisions, the HEOA has provided increased credibility and legitimacy to IPSE. Among multiple examples of high-quality IPSE opportunities in the US, some of the larger and more established exist at Clemson University (ClemsonLIFE), University of Iowa (UI REACH), Syracuse University (InclusiveU) and Vanderbilt University (Next Steps). Some IPSE offerings provide services that are substantially separate from the courses and services accessed by those students not accessing disability support services; these include specialized programs that are designed for and offered only to students with IDD (Hart, Mele-McCarthy, Pasternack, Zimbrich, & Parker, 2004). Such courses may focus on skill development in areas of need commonly associated with individuals with IDD (e.g., independent living, social skills, vocational skills, self-determination). Although these programs may initially appear to be an effective way to support students with IDD in HEI settings, the lack of engagement with peers without disabilities limits the extent to which these offerings are actually inclusive. Thus, there is an increased emphasis on providing opportunities for students with IDD to enroll [End Page 528] in the same courses as their peers (Grigal, Hart, & Weir, 2011; HEOA, 2008). With this in mind, the purpose of this article is to provide recommendations for HEI staff and faculty to increase course accessibility for students with IDD. BENEFITS OF INCLUSIVE POSTSECONDARY EDUCATION For higher education institutions, IPSE offers an additional opportunity to develop a diverse student body (Izzo & Shuman, 2013). Experiences with diverse individuals are especially important for young adults, because they are in the process of developing self-identity and an understanding of the world (Gurin, Dey, Hurtado, & Gurin, 2002). Although many HEIs may not include disability as a dimension of diversity (Scheef, Caniglia, & Barrio, 2020), a student body that represents a cross-section of the population should include students with IDD. Faculty generally have favorable attitudes toward IPSE, and these may increase after leading a classroom that includes students with IDD (Plotner & Marshall, 2015). Faculty who lead inclusive courses may experience a multitude of benefits, including an increased sense of job satisfaction and a more positive classroom climate (O'Connor, Kubiak, Espiner, & O'Brien, 2012). Students with IDD who engage in inclusive opportunities reap many benefits, including, but not limited to, improved independent living skills, social skills, community access, self-advocacy skills, and employability (Grigal, Hart, Smith, Papay, & Domin, 2018). Uditsky and Hughson (2012) frame IPSE as a moral imperative rooted in social justice; it offers students with IDD the same traditional college experience opportunities as their peers without IDD. Students without IDD who attend postsecondary education institutions that support IPSE are more likely to accept their peers with IDD and to benefit from the experience (e.g., increased comfort with people with disabilities, enhanced self-esteem, greater awareness of career interests; Izzo & Shuman, 2013; May, 2012). RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PRACTICE Following are recommendations for course instructors who are leading classrooms that include students...

Chapter 13 Technology and the structure of tertiary education institutions

This qualitative study was designed to explore the transition experiences of youth with learning disabilities (LD) educated in the province of Ontario and their families. The primary purpose of this research was to understand what influences the decisions adolescents who have LD make about post-secondary education and employment goals and paths. The expectations and experiences of youth with LD and their families during the transition process were investigated. Adolescents and their parents were the main informants. Facilitators and barriers to the process in terms of each of the systems described in Bronfenbrenner ecological theory and Turnbull and Turnbull’s family systems theory were also examined. A case study method was used in the design of this research and data were collected following Seidman’s three-interview process. Five families consisting of the youth with LD, at least one parent, and in four cases, a sibling participated in this study. The questions focused on family interactions, roles, and the decision-making process. Data from the 18 participants were coded and arranged according to the research questions which were linked to the central ideas in the theoretical framework. The findings revealed that parents’ expectations influenced the decision-making about post high school goals and paths by the youth and their families. In contrast to previous research, it was found that parents’ expectations were generally high for their children with LD and were shaped by their own post high school experiences. The dynamics of family relationships and roles during transition planning depended on the time of diagnosis of LD (primary grades vs. senior high school), attitudes towards LD by the parents, advocacy by parents, self-advocacy abilities of the youth with LD, and the nature of relations among siblings. Additionally, none of the youth with LD had a formal transition plan and the data showed that teachers could facilitate or hinder the transition process. Also emerging from the data were three types of advocacy that were practised by parents. The study findings add to our knowledge about the transition process and in particular how decisions are made and the factors that influence them. Moreover, this study gives a voice to youth with LD and their families as they described their transition experiences to post-secondary education or employment. Word count: 360