Origin of Nālandā Mahāvihāra: Structure as Evidence and Seal as Symbol

As indicated by archeological and literary sources, the pot drum has been a membranaphone of popular use since the Anuradhapura kingdom. It has been seen in various forms as Kumbha beraya, kala beraya, bummadiya or bimbisaka. This drum, being made out of clay in the shape of a gourd with an elongated neck or in that of a clay pot had a stretched skin of goat hide, monitor lizard hide or monkey hide. The use of these raw materials and how it brings harmony between the pottery industry and villagers in the processes of making the bummadiya is of importance. Through this research, understanding the Sri Lankan pot drum as a primary musical instrument and studying its historical and cultural aspects served as a foundation. After which, the objectives of identifying the role the pot-drum plays in sustainability were discussed. Finally, an investigation into an evolutionary stage of the pot drum in modern times, the thunpata beraya, was investigated. While this is a qualitative research, literary and archeological sources were used to collect data through discussions and field visits. The cultural texts and articles written throughout the ages on the Sri Lankan pot drum were used as secondary sources. Judgment sampling was the background behind the selection of data sources. Audio-visual methods were also used in collecting data. The human activity of using a material such as clay to express creativity in the form of music is of significance here.

There is evidence that has been an advanced art in Sri Lanka since ancient times. The source provides evidence that dance and instrumental art existed in Sri Lanka from the pre-Buddhist era. In addition to the arts of dance and music, there is evidence that drama has existed in Sri Lanka since pre-Buddhist times. The question of this research is whether there was a drama art in Sri Lanka from the pre-Buddhist era to the Kandyan era. Literary and archaeological sources were used as the methodology for this research. Primary and secondary sources were used under literary sources and inscriptions, ruins, etc. were investigated under archeological sources. The names drama, dance, theater, choreographer, dancer, dancer and poet were used in connection with literary and archeological sources. Searching for the meaning of those names confirmed that it meant drama. These names have been used in connection with a source in Sri Lanka since pre-Buddhist times. Accordingly, it was confirmed that there was a drama in Sri Lanka from the pre-Buddhist era to the Kandyan era.

Book Review| January 01 2007 Herod Antipas in Galilee: The Literary and Archaeological Sources on the Reign of Herod Antipas and Its Socio-Economic Impact on Galilee Herod Antipas in Galilee: The Literary and Archaeological Sources on the Reign of Herod Antipas and Its Socio-Economic Impact on Galilee. WUNT 215Jensen, Morten Hørning Eckhard J. Schnabel Eckhard J. Schnabel Search for other works by this author on: This Site Google Bulletin for Biblical Research (2007) 17 (2): 369–371. https://doi.org/10.2307/26423955 Cite Icon Cite Share Icon Share Twitter Permissions Search Site Citation Eckhard J. Schnabel; Herod Antipas in Galilee: The Literary and Archaeological Sources on the Reign of Herod Antipas and Its Socio-Economic Impact on Galilee. Bulletin for Biblical Research 1 January 2007; 17 (2): 369–371. doi: https://doi.org/10.2307/26423955 Download citation file: Zotero Reference Manager EasyBib Bookends Mendeley Papers EndNote RefWorks BibTex toolbar search Search Dropdown Menu nav search search input Search input auto suggest search filter All Scholarly Publishing CollectivePenn State University PressBulletin for Biblical Research Search Advanced Search The text of this article is only available as a PDF. Copyright © 2007 by The Pennsylvania State University. All rights reserved.2007The Pennsylvania State University Article PDF first page preview Close Modal You do not currently have access to this content.

This chapter brings together different disciplines, some for the first time, and combines fields of research that should not be pursued in isolation from each other should the author wishes to further his understanding of the broader historical context of the first Jewish revolt against Rome. Several issues with regard to the literary, archaeological, numismatic and epigraphic sources and the historical reconstruction of this conflict warrant further reflection. True to the pursuit of history briefly outlined, the chapter presents new data that generate new questions, as well as new perspectives that shed new light on already familiar data. The perspectives offered by the various contributors are often interdisciplinary, engaging different sources and approaches. Keywords:archaeological source; epigraphic sources; first Jewish revolt; literary source; numismatic source; Rome

Research in history is digging into the past through multidisciplinary approach, with the requisites of professionalism, critical aptitude, technical erudition, analytical mind and incisive faculty to reconstruct the past and to elaborate, analyze, synthesize, philosophize the ideas and critically examine the data in the light of objectivity. Historical research is primarily based on literary and archaeological sources. Literary sources are more or less infected of personal bias and prejudice by the author or interpreter. So, here archaeology comes to rescue for reconstructing comparatively an unbiased history. Archaeology is an auxiliary science or ancillary discipline with its numerous approaches, which assist in historical research. It is a sub-discipline of anthropology which is concerned with the study of human evolution and his environment and the material culture associated with him in pre-historic, proto-historic and historic periods through practical undertakings, methods and theories. Kashmir is an ancient geological land with glorious past where the man lived since the pre-historic times and has always been contacts with her neighbors and witnessed influx and efflux of races and cultures. So the role of archaeology with literature is of vital significance in the research of history of Kashmir. But, the application of archaeology in the research of history of Kashmir in general and in ancient and medieval history in particular seems very negligible. The attitude and interest of research about the ancient history of Kashmir and fresh explorations of archaeological sites among the regional institutions,students and scholars is meager. The national and international surveys and studies about archaeological research have also come to halt. The deteriorating condition of archaeological sites in the valley gives us the glimpse of our vanishing history. Archaeology is not confined to historical archaeology, it includes ethno-archaeology, Environmental Archaeology, Rural and Urban Archaeology, Marine Archaeology, and the list goes on. In this paper I will try to investigate the different perspectives and concerns of archaeological research in the history of Kashmir, its application on vast and wide areas of research, keeping in view the post-processual and postmodern viewpoint. Besides methodological problems, descriptions and fundamental goals, this paper seeks to evaluate the reasons why and based on these evaluations some suggestions for future research in Kashmir history are proposed. As the history of Kashmir is the significant and an inseparable part of Kashmir Studies

Reviewed by: Early Christianity in Lycaonia and Adjacent Areas: From Paul to Amphilochius of Iconium by Cilliers Breytenbach and Christiane Zimmermann Sabine R. Huebner Cilliers Breytenbach and Christiane Zimmermann Early Christianity in Lycaonia and Adjacent Areas: From Paul to Amphilochius of Iconium Ancient Judaism and Early Christianity, Vol. 101; Early Christianity in Asia Minor Leiden: Brill, 2017 Pp. xxx + 977. eBook: $314.00; Hardcover: $345.00. This is a book about early Christians, however, not about the usual martyrs, saints, or bishops in the great centers of the ancient world, but ordinary Christians in a backwater province of the Roman Empire. In a history from below, crossing the disciplines between New Testament studies, church history, social history, and Greek epigraphy, Breytenbach and Zimmermann are investigating the spread and expansion of Christianity in Lycaonia. Lycaonia was a rough, infertile, and mountainous region in the interior of Asia Minor on the Anatolian plateau. It was visited by the apostle Paul probably traveling along the great highroad across Anatolia, the Via Sebaste. There he is said to have founded the first congregations of Christians. Over the next century, Lycaonia became one of the first strongholds of Christianity, with the earliest inscriptions referring to Christians dating to the second century c.e. The book carries a hefty price tag with EUR €299.00 or USD $345.00 for the hardcover version, but its nearly 1,000 pages with thirteen maps and sixty-five figures are packed with detailed original scholarship of great interest for both an academic audience and the general reader, as the information is always presented in an accessible manner. The impressive volume offering a regional approach to the early expansion of Christianity is coauthored by two internationally leading experts in the field: Cilliers Breytenbach, who is Professor of literature, history, and religion of Early Christianity at Humboldt-Universität Berlin and Christiane Zimmermann, Professor of history, theology, and literature of the New Testament at Christian-Albrechts-Universität Kiel. For many years, Breytenbach devoted his research to the earliest testimonies of Christianity among the epigraphic evidence from Asia Minor. Zimmermann's research focuses on the expansion of Christianity in the first Christian centuries on the basis of literary, epigraphic, and archaeological sources. Both joined forces several years ago in the Berlin Excellence Cluster 264 TOPOI; their subproject (B-III-2) "The organization of diversity in the ecclesiastic [End Page 325] space of antiquity" also created a database of early Christian inscriptions from Asia Minor and Greece (http://repository.edition-topoi.org/collection/ICG). The result of their collaboration is an impressive achievement, the first detailed survey of the rise and expansion of Christianity in ancient Lycaonia and adjacent areas, from Paul the apostle to the Council of Chalcedon in 451. Following in the footsteps of Ramsay, Harnack, and Calder, Breytenbach and Zimmermann map the expansion of Christianity in the region of Lycaonia. The study is mainly based on the epigraphic evidence, above all, hundreds of funerary inscriptions from Lycaonia and adjacent areas, as the literary and archaeological sources are sparse. It shifts the focus away from the imperial elites to ordinary people, local city councilors, clergy men and women, craftsmen, and peasants who proclaimed their Christian identity (among many other identities) on their tombstones for posterity. The first chapter discusses previous scholarship, followed by a presentation of the sources for the spread of Christianity covering the literary, epigraphic, and archeological evidence. Space is also devoted to discussing the pervasive difficulties that every scholar of early Christianity is acutely aware of: how to identify Christians especially then when these Christians were embedded into a socio-cultural setting from which their customs differed very little. The second chapter is devoted to the political and administrative landscape of the province of Roman Lycaonia, and the history of events from the age of Augustus to the mid-fifth century c.e. Chapter Three treats the apostle Paul's travels through Lycaonia and his potential impact on the rise of Christianity, as well as Christian naming practices in this region. Chapter Four sets out the expansion of Christianity in Lycaonia, grouping the evidence geographically (as far as this is possible, as many stones were not found...

"In Moesia inferior traces of Roman roads are rare. Most of their descriptions belong to the late nineteenth century and were carried out especially by the Shkorpil brothers. Many of the roads thus mentioned do not exist anymore. The aim of this article is to propose the reconstitution of the communication network of the province based on the analysis of literary, epigraphic and archaeological sources. Th e most important written sources are listed grouped by the type of given information on the roads: defi nition, types, stages of construction, juridical regime etc. Th e cartographic sources are the main ones: Tabula Peutingeriana, Itinerarium Antonini, Notitia Dignitatum etc. Epigraphical and archaeological sources are added to these. If the literary or juridical sources, maps, etc. contain general information, valid throughout the Roman Empire, for the reconstitution of the road system of Moesia Inferior the most important role is played by inscriptions: the milestone inscriptions, those mentioning military annexes built along the roads or second-ranking soldiers charged with guarding roads. All these data enable not only to outline the routes but also to establish their chronology. "

This paper aims to examine the structures dedicated to the accommodation of pilgrims (xenodochia) in pilgrimage sites and the Egyptian monasteries between the sixth and ninth centuries. In the previous studies about pilgrimage sites in Christian Egypt, scholars have rarely focused on the type of structures and accommodation facilities offered by any religious institution to its visitors. To tackle such a topic, one needs to consult a fairly large amount of written and archaeological sources searching for clues that might help understand the organizing system of accommodation facilities offered to visitors in monasteries during this period. The early archaeological field work of certain monastic sites being unfinished or in some cases published with confusing interpretations about the function of the xenodochia, led to a lack of reliable information about this specific topic. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5913/jcscs.2019.69748874

I. Acculturation and Romanization: general issues and particularities for Moesia InferiorWe will refrain from detailing the various definitions of acculturation. R. L. Bee (1974, 96) explains acculturation as modification within cultures resulting from contacts with alien life ways, while J. H. F. Bloemers (1989, 178) defines it as a continuous process of interaction between two or more autonomous culture systems and the resulting change. In regard to the Roman era, Romanization is an element of acculturation. D. Cherry (1998, 78) believes that model of Romanization should meet either of following three criteria. The first is the acculturation of ideas and objects embedded in the Roman culture and not acculturated up to that moment. The second is the substitution of ideas or objects embedded in the indigenous culture. The third is that it should measure the acculturation of ideas and objects across broader social range of the indigenous culture.How does acculturation manifest itself in the Roman provinces, what are its main elements - seen through literary, epigraphic, and archaeological sources - and, finally, can we notice them in the case of the Roman province of Moesia Inferior? There is no specific order for these elements, as each of them is important given its characteristics. Hence, we will not insist here, for instance, on the Roman governing mode, based on the established local elite (Millett 1990; contra Cherry 1998, 81-84), on the Roman urbanism (see also Benabou 1976, 57, 76, 121); A. Woolf 1998, 118-119; Weiler 2007, 371-390; Laurence, Esmonde Cleary, Sears 2011, 55-58, 96), on the Romanization of the rural landscape (Saddington 1991, 413; David 1996, 178; G. Woolf 1998, 144-158; Petts 1998, 79-94; Linke 2006, 65-94; Brigand 2009, 7-40), on Roman religion as factor of Romanization (Fishwick 2002; 2002a; 2003. 358-365; 2004; Garriguet Mata 2001; 2003; Stone 2008, 2157-2160), or on the penetration of Roman law in the provinces (De Visscher 1963; Barbera et alii 2004, 177-308). We will present only one element regarding Romanization, which involves the discussion on colonisation and acculturation at the same time: the military presence in the provinces, with an emphasis on Moesia Inferior.There is an almost unanimous consensus that the Roman army was an element of Romanization and of acculturation. In other words, the stationing of imperial troops in the provinces contributed to the propagation of Roman customs, of the Roman lifestyle. The archaeological excavations have brought additional information to what was already known from the epigraphic sources. Bloemers (1991, 452) synthesizes the integrative role of the army as follows: 1) in the economic field, the role was expressed through mobilisation of local forces (we would add, also through polarisation of the economic centres in the provinces); 2) in demography, by recruiting soldiers; 3) in the social and political system, by organizing the borders (we would add, by integrating the veterans in the life of the provinces and by involving them in the development of cities); 4) in the infrastructure, through transportation and restocking. Though the general impression is that the Roman army had decisive role in Romanization, the reality is more nuanced. Thus, after analyzing the situation of the indigenous sites of Northumberland, L. Allason-Jones (1991, 3) concludes that, after their occupation by the Romans, these settlements augmented their small object production, but they did not develop particular taste for Roman products following the establishment of the Romans in the region. Since agriculture was not very developed and the locals did not use coinage, the natural question is what products they could have traded for food with the Romans (see also Haynes 2002, 116). The same variations are encountered in the south of the Britain (Davies 2002, 169-203). In Noricum, there are cases where the local settlements are capable of their own production of goods; following the Marcomannic Wars, the intervention of the Roman army is decisive (Mikl Curk 1991, 250). …

The study analyses the findings of writing instrument and its nomenclature through literary and archaeological sources. Certainly, writing instruments and materials were linked to the appearance of letters and scripts, but we should remind ourselves that the Harappan people did have their own script and left their inscriptions, which we have yet to decipher. Even prior to the Harappan civilisation we have innumerable findings, like graffiti or decorative designs on potsherds, symbols, incised potteries, multi-grooved designs on pots, stamped decorations, pictographs or art and paintings on various materials. If we consider these to be the primal form of a script or primordial form of writing, then definitely these exhibit some kind of communication. And there must have existed some kind of instrument used for the purpose of marking or incising on various materials, which were later on instrumental in the evolution of a script or writing system. This tool or device or instrument could be made of stone, bone, ivory, horn, copper or iron. Again various archaeological terms have been used for these instruments though no one is certain about the nomenclature of these instruments. Whatever the epithets or name tags used for the instruments, there is a certain kind of correlation between the findings of these tools from the various excavation sites, as evident from the many excavation reports referred to. Although these tools were used for various purposes in diverse ways, still it is not adequate reason to exclude them from the discussion of the writing instrument.

The Satavahanas, who are also called Andhrabhrityas in the Puranas, ruled in Dakshinapatha, the Dekkan, for more than three centuries, roughly from the 1st quarter of the 1st cen. B.C. to the 2nd half of the 3rd cen. A.D. Throughout this period we find the Satavahana kings constantly in conflict with their contemporary rivals, the Sakas, who ruled in Gujarat. The earliest capital of the Satavahana Empire known from literary and archaeological sources is Pratishthana, which is identified with the modern Paithana on the upper Godavari. In the Aurangabad district of Hyderabad State. Saks pressure from the west, however, forced them to move southward and eventually gave rise to a second capital at Amaravati, on the southern bank of the which became the permanent seat of the later atavahana kings. The two most important events of the Saka-Satavahana struggle for supremacy in the Dekkan were, the complete destruction of the Kshaharatas or the family of Nahapana by king Gautamiputra Sri Satakarni, and the defeat of the Satavahana King Vashisthiputra Satakarni by Mahakshatrapa Rudradamana of Ujjain. The flourishing trade of the western Indian ports, which are described by the classical geographers as the great commercial centres of India, attracted both the rival powers. Although the conquests of Audradaman considerably weakened the Satavahana Empire yet the reign of Yajnasri Satakarni saw a temporary revival of their power. The dynasty, however, came to as end in the 1st quarter of the 3rd cen. A.D. The present thesis A Cultural History of the Satavahana Dynasty is divided into six chapters as follows : (1) Geographical Sketch of the Satavahana Empire. (2) Brief history of the Satavahana Dynasty. (3) Administrative Arrangements. (4) Economic Conditions and Maritime Activities. (5) Art and Architecture. (6) Social and Religious Conditions. Although the thesis is mainly based on literary, epigraphical, numismatic and other sources, particular attention has been paid to the Archaeoloical material available. In order to simplify the history of the period six maps have been included to illustrate important aspects of Satavahana rule in the Dekkan. The thesis is provided with appendices and a complete bibliographical list of the books consulted.

In the few available literary sources there is no evidence about the viticulture in Northern Gaul, but in the other hand we have accounts of its existence in the southern areas. Archaeological sources are mainly situated in the South, around Marseille, but also in Provence and Languedoc, where there are discoveries of pips, pollens, vine-shoots, land marks, implements and dolia. On the economical point of view, Marseille produces wine for exportation contrary to indigenous viticultural sites having a very low production. Lattes is a special case where we find an extensive vine cultivation during the 3rd -1st centuries BC.

Encroachment, or the usurpation of public space by secondary structures, is nowadays often considered indicative of economic prosperity. This opinion is largely based on laws and literary sources, whereas many archaeological remains are still categorised as the houses of squatters. This article considers mainly archaeological sources which show the evolution of encroachment throughout Late Antiquity. An overview of its topographical settings within the city and its connection to other buildings is offered, together with an assessment of its appearance and function. These elements are then used to establish the degree of public involvement in its construction and to explain the chronological and topographical spread of encroachment.

Building on previous interpretation of the graffiti from Khirbet Beit Lei, this article argues that a larger number of Iron Age graffiti found in graves and caves in Judah, or ostensibly from such, may be interpreted as expressions of refugees hiding from enemies. It explores the concerns, status, and situations of the refugees, correlating them with literary (biblical) texts reflecting similar language and concerns, or referring to people of similar status and in similar situations. The lapidary utterances, this article argues, give immediacy, while the literary expressions supply imaginative and aesthetic richness to the common concerns. Material, epigraphic, and literary sources from later centuries, and archaeological sources from much earlier, suggest that the historical experience of such refugees was perennial, indeed permillennial, in ancient Palestine.

The scholar who wishes to investigate in depth historical, literary, or theological issues connected with the “Luminous Teaching” (Jingjiao 景教)—as East-Syrian Christianity, still often called “Nestorianism,” 1 was referred to in Tang China—faces a fundamental difficulty: the lack of historical and archaeological sources. Even literary sources, although significant, number only a few texts, almost nothing when compared with the huge amount of Confucian, Daoist, and Buddhist literature that circulated or was produced in Tang China.2KeywordsTang DynastyReligious DiversityChristian CommunityHermeneutic ApproachBuddhist TeachingThese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.