Order of Mention in Causal Sequences: Talking about Cause and Effect in Narratives and Warning Signs

The effects of a match or mismatch between the order in which events occur and the order in which they are mentioned in a narrative were studied in two experiments. Events were connected either by a causal relation or by an arbitrary temporal relation. A mismatch between order of mention and order of occurrence did not significantly affect speed of comprehension of causally connected events. However, a mismatch significantly slowed down comprehension of arbitrarily connected events. It was suggested that in the case of causal events a mental model of their temporal order already exists, but for arbitrarily related events it must be constructed. This process is facilitated when order of mention matches the order of occurrence. There were no effects of order of mention on memory for temporal order, but there were memory differences depending on the connective used.

In the context of modern education, the formation of communicative-linguistic competence in the primary cycle represents an essential stage in the development of students, ensuring the foundation for clear, correct and efficient expression, both in oral and written communication. This competence is structured on two major dimensions: linguistic competence, which involves the correct mastery of the language in accordance with grammatical rules, and communicative competence, which involves the appropriate use of language, adapted to the context, the interlocutor and the purpose of communication. Communicative-linguistic competence is defined as an integrated set of linguistic and communicative knowledge, capacities for exploring and applying language values in various communication situations, as well as attitudes towards language phenomena and transmitted and received messages, practiced spontaneously and which facilitate the efficient achievement of the communicative act, both in general and specialized terms. To cultivate this competence, the educational process must be adapted to the cognitive and emotional level of the students, using interactive methods, focused on their active involvement, such as role-playing, debates and practical exercises of expression. These strategies contribute to enriching vocabulary, consolidating grammatical rules by applying them in real contexts and developing the capacity to understand and interpret various types of texts. Communicative-linguistic competence in primary grades refers not only to students’ ability to understand and use the Romanian language correctly in speech and writing, but also to their capacity to adapt language to different communication contexts, to formulate clear, coherent and logical ideas, and to interact effectively with interlocutors. This competence includes both the linguistic dimension — mastery of grammatical, orthographic and vocabulary norms — and the pragmatic and sociolinguistic dimension, i.e. the use of language functionally, for various purposes: information, expression, persuasion or collaboration.

In the explanatory text it has a plot or structure like other types of text, such as general statements, cause and effect and interpretation. The explanatory text also has linguistic rules which include copula, active verbs, conjunctions, adverbs of time, scientific terms, pronouns. This research is entitled "Analysis of the Structure and Rules of Explanatory Text in Class XI Students MA Miftahul Ulum Attohirin Academic Year 2019/2020. To find out the problems in conjunction analysis in a collection of explanatory texts in class XI MA Miftahul Ulum Attohirin students, it is necessary to formulate the problem as well as the formulation of the problem, namely, 1) What is the structure of the explanatory text in class XI MA Miftahul Ulum Attohirin Gondanglegi Malang students? 2) What are the rules of language explanation text in class XI MA Miftahul Ulum Attohirin Gondanglegi Malang?. This type of research is a descriptive qualitative research type. The qualitative research method is a research method based on the philosophy of postpositivism, this method is used to study natural objects. Where the researcher is the key instrument, the data collection technique is done by triangulation or a combination, the data analysis is inductive/qualitative and the results of qualitative research emphasize the meaning rather than generalization. Based on the data analysis carried out, it was concluded that 8 students were able to determine the structure of the expansion text well. Learners are able to determine the structure of general statements, cause and effect, and interpretation. In the explanatory text linguistic rules, there are 6 out of 11 students who are able to determine the rules of the explanatory text language. Students do not understand the language rules of explanatory text such as copula, conjunction, active verbs, adverbs of time, scientific terms and noun pronouns.

Face to face interviews are considered as a type of genre in spoken discourse and they include various linguistic strategies that worth investigating. Within these interviews, there is context sensitivity, since the interaction is active and direct between participants. Thus, there should be a use of certain expressions to perform a number of functions such as: topic shift, introducing a new topic, producing personal comment by participants, expressing politeness, etc. Those expressions are called discourse markers (henceforth DMs); they are of different categories and they convey textual functions (expressing coherence and cohesion) and pragmatic functions (expressing the speaker's attitude and other communicative purposes). DMs act as connectors ( connect clauses, sentences, and paragraphs) , indicators (indicate relations in discourse), and instructors (direct participants to the accurate interpretation of an utterance). This study is a discourse study that concerns with the functions of different types of DMs in spoken interaction (social interviews). This study aims at:(i) presenting a general theoretical survey of discourse markers and their relation to other types of markers in an attempt to get a unified framework to analyse the data of this study, (ii) investigating the effect and role of context, specifically social context in determining the meanings and functions of DMs, (iii) explaining the various functions that different types of DMs convey in spoken interaction particularly social interviews. To achieve these aims , the study hypothesizes that: (i) It is hypothesized that context is the major factor that affects the choice of meanings and functions of DM , (ii)Certain types of DMs are used frequently in active spoken interaction, and (iii) DMs convey particular types of functions in social interviews. The model adopted in this study is: Fraser's classification of Pragmatic Markers 1996. It is applied to 2 selected TV interviews within one context , involving both genders, and from one program. The interviews are analyzed according to the adopted model. The main conclusions of the current study are: (i) Context is represented as a main independent factor, that determines the choice of DMs types and the type of functions DMs convey, rather than working with other factors such as gender and social distance, (ii) Considering the variation of DMs, there are different types of DMs in the analyzed data, such as: SDMs and parallel markers, and (iii) DMs mainly convey textual and interpersonal functions in social interviews .

The interview occupies one of the leading places among the dialogue genres of the media, as it concerns the directreceipt of information or perspectives from the heads of state’s point of view, as well as from experts in particular fields,athletes, artists. This is what determines the relevance of the interview genre research. The aim of this article is tosingle out video interviews as a speech genre (in German studies – a communicative genre), as well as to define itscommunicative organization and composition, namely communicative and pragmatic organization in general. For the first time, a model for analyzing the speech genre “video interview” has been created. For this purpose the “passport”of T. Shmelyova’s speech genre, register features and parameter of the general communicative meaning of F. Batsevychwere used. The composition of the video interview, its communicative purpose and general communicative meaning,specifics of communication channels (scope of the video interview, form of expression and dictum content), communicationspace and content of social roles of communicators (model of the interviewer and the respondent, as well as factorsof communicative past and future), tone of genre and parameters of language embodiment (verbal and nonverbal meansof video interviews). Video interviews are defined as a speech (communicative) genre with a certain established structure,namely an integrated informative version of the interview genre, which includes TV and special interviews stored onYouTube video hosting on the Internet, which are a public form of receipt by the interviewer information through questionson a particular topic (about the identity of the respondent, his thoughts on a particular problem or event) from a wellknownin the field respondent, who has a specific composition at different structural levels. By analyzing communicativegenres, it can be proved that the communicative practices of interaction participants are created by a specific interactivefocus on the types of texts and discourses.

This paper analyses the moves and linguistic features in valedictory speeches of ten graduating students of some Colleges of Education in the Western and Central Regions of Ghana. Ten speeches ranging from 2013 to 2019 were selected from Holy Child College of Education, Takoradi, Our Lady of Apostle College of Education, Cape Coast and Foso College of Education, Fosu. Valedictory speech is important to graduating students of tertiary institutions and some high schools; as a specific form of genre, it shares the characteristics of both oral and written genre in the context of English for specific purposes which is geared towards English for Academic Purposes (EAP). The exemplars were analysed according to move patterns and their textual space as well as its linguistic features. This study adapted mix method design. Interview, focus group discussions and questionnaires were the instruments used. The study revealed that, communicative elements in the valedictory speech are very important to the graduating students and their message they intend to send to the audience. It also identified that it brings out a picture of issues that had contributed to the success of the graduating students and the end result of they being awarded their diplomas or degree. It was clearly established of linguistic features of valedictory speeches. For the analysis of moves and linguistic features in valedictory speeches, one relevant theory is Swales’ Genre Analysis. This theory is instrumental in understanding the structure (moves) and language use (linguistic features) in specific types of discourse like valedictory speeches. This investigation was underpinned by genre analysis theory foundered by Swales, J. (1990). Swales’, Genre Analysis focuses on how different types of texts (genres) are structured to achieve particular communicative purposes. The theory is especially useful in understanding academic and professional communication, as it provides a framework for analyzing the “moves” within a text—segments of discourse that serve specific functions. It was recommended that linguistic features within these moves should realize the functions and contribute to the overall purpose of the genre. Again, framework can be applied to valedictory speeches to analyze the rhetorical structure and the specific linguistic choices made to achieve the communicative goals of the speech.

Violation of conversational maxims and cooperation: The case of jokes

Decisions made by authorities form sections of intertextual chains that run from the preparation phase of an issue until the public is informed, and further when the public starts to discuss it (see Fairclough 1992). The chain consists of many types of texts with different communicative purposes. A concept that can be used to describe what happens within an intertextual chain is recontextualization. Linell (1998: 144―145) defines that as'the dynamic transfer-and-transformation of something from one discourse/text-in-context to another'. When certain contents, facts or arguments are recontextualized, transformations of meaning tend to happen, depending on the contexts into which they are embedded. In specialized communication it is especially important to understand the nature of such transformations when the context changes. The present paper discusses the methodological challenges in studying transformations of meaning in intertextual chains representing specialized communication, especially when considering the internet as a medium. The most important challenges include limiting the material, identifying points of recontextualization within a chain, and defining the scope of the analysis. As methods and aims are closely intertwined, the paper also suggests potential research questions for research on specialized communication.

The verb is the first indicator of time in language; therefore it is a fundamental starting point for all research into textual temporality. The Spanish verb system consists of ten verbal paradigms in the indicative mood, and four (or six) verbal paradigms in the subjunctive mood. This allows for a wide range of temporal values in different contexts. Every linguistic act and every type of text is realized as a dynamic process of communication where the utterer creates a discourse in order to give rise to certain effects in the recipient. The pragmatic dimension must, therefore, be inherent to each linguistic commentary on the temporality of any text, including a poetic text, where a lyrical discourse is being established in fictional time and space. The understanding of all components of communicative process is unavoidable for the proper interpretation of the textual network because with each statement the speaker “enters” into the language, and its communicative purpose is reflected not only through the meaning and vocabulary, but also at the morphological-syntactic level. This paper presents central views on the temporality of the Spanish verbal paradigms and proposes guidelines for the systematization of the expression of temporality in poetry. The survey is based on the hypothesis that it is possible to detect a certain distribution of Spanish verbal paradigms in poetic texts. The proposed temporal-modal systematization of the Spanish verb is based on the criterion of relevance.

So far we have looked at texts from the point of view of the surface features that bind them together. This unit looks at the ‘macro-structure’ of texts and considers how different types of texts, with different communicative purposes, are characteristically organised.

This chapter discusses the nature of multimodal text construction in the teaching and learning of EAL, presenting theoretical perspectives on text construction as a process of choice making. The extensive use of new technologies has made this process more complex, with multiple options readily available in terms of modes, designs, and composition of multimodal ensembles. To make appropriate choices, students need to develop an awareness of the complex relationship between the context, situation, and communicative purpose on the one hand and the manifestation of these factors in the actual text construction on the other. Examples of task prompts are discussed in terms of their potential to promote such awareness by de facto allowing students to practise making appropriate choices in their text production.

BackgroundIdentification of discourse relations, such as causal and contrastive relations, between situations mentioned in text is an important task for biomedical text-mining. A biomedical text corpus annotated with discourse relations would be very useful for developing and evaluating methods for biomedical discourse processing. However, little effort has been made to develop such an annotated resource.ResultsWe have developed the Biomedical Discourse Relation Bank (BioDRB), in which we have annotated explicit and implicit discourse relations in 24 open-access full-text biomedical articles from the GENIA corpus. Guidelines for the annotation were adapted from the Penn Discourse TreeBank (PDTB), which has discourse relations annotated over open-domain news articles. We introduced new conventions and modifications to the sense classification. We report reliable inter-annotator agreement of over 80% for all sub-tasks. Experiments for identifying the sense of explicit discourse connectives show the connective itself as a highly reliable indicator for coarse sense classification (accuracy 90.9% and F1 score 0.89). These results are comparable to results obtained with the same classifier on the PDTB data. With more refined sense classification, there is degradation in performance (accuracy 69.2% and F1 score 0.28), mainly due to sparsity in the data. The size of the corpus was found to be sufficient for identifying the sense of explicit connectives, with classifier performance stabilizing at about 1900 training instances. Finally, the classifier performs poorly when trained on PDTB and tested on BioDRB (accuracy 54.5% and F1 score 0.57).ConclusionOur work shows that discourse relations can be reliably annotated in biomedical text. Coarse sense disambiguation of explicit connectives can be done with high reliability by using just the connective as a feature, but more refined sense classification requires either richer features or more annotated data. The poor performance of a classifier trained in the open domain and tested in the biomedical domain suggests significant differences in the semantic usage of connectives across these domains, and provides robust evidence for a biomedical sublanguage for discourse and the need to develop a specialized biomedical discourse annotated corpus. The results of our cross-domain experiments are consistent with related work on identifying connectives in BioDRB.

Translation and interpreting activities deal with groupings of words in sentences and with sequences of sentences. These groupings are non-random; they are assembled deliberately for communicative purposes. This deliberate selection produces a so-called text. Texts are "interaction structures" whose formal and semantic properties are intentionally structured in alignment with the communicative purposes of situated social interactions. As such, texts have specific language characteristics that can allow, for instance, for classification into text types. Any actions taken by the translator or interpreter must account for these characteristics or properties (and cultural differences in them) when creating a new vehicle for situated communication in the target culture. The study of how language is used in texts is referred to as text linguistics and is associated with the work of, among others, Van Dijk; Halliday and Hasan; and de Beaugrande and Dressler. Much of text linguistics developed in parallel with translation studies. Both had early and continuing relationships to systemic functional linguistics and were concerned with the nature of textuality. However, the intersection of text linguistics and translation studies was first formalized by the work of Hatim and Mason (1990) and Neubert (1985, 1992). These works introduced core concepts of text linguistics into translation studies: coherence, cohesion, intentionality, situationality, acceptability, informativity and intertextuality.

Successful texts exhibit two characteristics: (1) its communicative purpose (s) being effectively conveyed to the target audience within a particular context; and (2) the linguistic features in the text, which represent a cohesive unit of meaning appropriate to its context. For example, a recipe is quite different from an advertisement promoting a product in that each exhibits structural elements and lexico-grammatical features that are appropriate within their particular contexts and each targets a particular group of people. Genre analysis based on functional grammar has been applied to teaching students to write successful texts. While a genre-based approach to teaching writing has raised student awareness of the obligatory and optional structural elements or stages exhibited by different genres or text types, not much attention has been paid to looking at the textual dimension of a text, although it has been accepted that both aspects are important for success in writing. Butt et al. (2001:3) state that a good text is one which contains both ‘certain obligatory structural elements appropriate to their purpose and context’ and ‘a harmonious collection of meanings appropriate to its context.’ This chapter offers a genre-based approach to teaching writing from a systemic functional linguistics perspective and argues that success in writing requires not only attention paid to the structural elements in a text but also to the textual features in it, with particular focus on the thematic choices employed by students in foregrounding the message of the text.

Since Friulian has been recognized as a minority language by the region Friuli-Venezia Giulia (1996) and by the Italian Republic (Law 482/1999), the elaboration process has been accelerated and intensified. Friulian has advanced into text types in which it had not been used before, such as scientific papers, administrative texts, journal articles, etc. In order to fulfill the needs of these new communicative purposes, an extensive and intensive elaboration of language is needed. This happens on the one side through a conscious codification process, especially by intense lexicographical activity, and on the other side “by doing”. In both cases, the influence of more elaborated languages – mainly of Italian, but partially also of other languages, especially English – plays a central role. Lexical items, but also morphological processes and syntactical structures are borrowed from these languages. This fact has structural consequences on Friulian, and, in the long run, could cause a typological change. After a brief outline of the recent history of the elaboration of Friulian and its legal framework, I will focus on some morphological and syntactical structures: the formation of relational (denominal) adjectives instead of prepositional phrases (which also triggers some less productive morphophonological patterns) and the borrowing of Italian adjectives and nouns derived from a present participle, provoking Friulian loan formations, although in Friulian present participles are no usual grammatical structures. In the end, I will focus on stâ+gerund periphrases, which are built on the Italian model. These are compatible with some aktionsart verb classes that the ‘genuine’ Friulian aspectual periphrases jessi che+indicative present or imperfect and jessi daûr a+infinitive cannot be used with and therefore it can be seen as a change in the semantic-syntactic system of Friulian.