Option Wealth and Bequest Values: The Value of Protecting Future Generations from the Health Risks of Nuclear Waste Storage

Abstract

<h3>SUMMARY</h3> The plant extracellular space, including the apoplast and plasma membrane, is the initial site of plant– pathogen interactions. Pathogens deliver numerous secreted proteins, called effectors, into this region to suppress plant immunity and establish infection. Downy mildew caused by the oomycete pathogen <i>Sclerospora graminicola</i> (Sg) is an economically important disease of Poaceae crops including foxtail millet (<i>Setaria italica</i>). We previously reported the genome sequence of Sg and showed that the Jacalin-related lectin (JRL) gene family has significantly expanded in this lineage. However, the biological functions of JRL proteins remained unknown. Here, we show that JRL from <i>S. graminicola</i> (SgJRL) functions as an apoplastic virulence effector. We identified eight SgJRLs <i>via</i> protein mass spectrometry analysis of extracellular fluid from <i>S. graminicola</i>-inoculated foxtail millet leaves. SgJRLs consist of a Jacalin-like lectin domain and an N-terminal putative secretion signal, and <i>SgJRL</i> expression is induced by Sg infection. Heterologous expression of three SgJRLs with N-terminal secretion signal peptides in <i>Nicotiana benthamiana</i> enhanced the virulence of the pathogen <i>Phytophthora palmivora</i> inoculated onto the same leaves. Of the three SgJRLs, SG06536 fused with GFP localized to the apoplastic space in <i>N. benthamiana</i> leaves. INF1-mediated induction of defense-related genes was suppressed by co-expression of SG06536-GFP. These findings suggest that JRLs are novel apoplastic effectors that contribute to pathogenicity by suppressing plant defense responses.