Optimizing online teaching effectiveness in elementary education: Exploring multifaceted pathways based fsQCA analysis

The rapid advancement of technology in education has not been fully aligned with elementary school teachers’ ability to integrate it into their teaching practices. This gap persists due to the limited development of Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) and the lack of research examining the combined influence of digital literacy and teacher motivation on TPACK. This study aims to analyze these two factors and their impact on TPACK among elementary school teachers. The study employed a quantitative correlational design; data were collected from 98 teachers through validated questionnaires on digital literacy, teacher motivation, and TPACK. Data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics by linear regression analysis. The findings of this research lie in its exploration of the relationship between digital literacy, teacher motivation, and TPACK. It addresses a significant gap in the literature by examining the simultaneous interaction of these two variables on TPACK. The findings indicate a significant positive relationship between digital literacy and teacher motivation with TPACK, with correlation coefficients of 0.857 and 0.866, respectively. Digital literacy accounts for 73.5% of the variability in TPACK, while teacher motivation explains 75.1%. This study contributes to the existing literature by providing empirical evidence on the simultaneous effects of digital literacy and motivation on TPACK, a perspective often overlooked. Limitations include the study's focus on self-reported measures and a single geographic context, which may impact generalizability. The findings support the need for targeted professional development programs emphasizing both digital literacy and motivational strategies to enhance technology-based teaching in elementary education.

The COVID-19 pandemic has transformed education worldwide, particularly in Indonesia, where higher education institutions shifted from offline to online instruction. This transition, mandated by the Ministry of Education, underscored the importance of Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) for effective online teaching. This study examines Indonesian lecturers’ perceptions of TPACK in an online learning environment during the pandemic, focusing on the interrelationships among its components. A quantitative research approach with a survey design was employed, involving 171 lecturers from private higher education institutions in Jambi. Data were collected through structured questionnaires assessing the seven components of TPACK: technological knowledge (TK), pedagogical knowledge (PK), content knowledge (CK), technological pedagogical knowledge (TPK), technological content knowledge (TCK), pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), and overall TPACK integration. Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) was used to analyse the hypothesized relationships among these components. The findings reveal significant positive correlations between all TPACK components, emphasizing their interdependent role in online instruction. Lecturers who effectively integrated technology, pedagogy, and content knowledge demonstrated greater adaptability and instructional effectiveness. The study highlights the necessity of continuous professional development programs to enhance lecturers’ TPACK competencies. This research contributes to educational technology discourse by providing insights into TPACK’s practical application during the pandemic. Further studies should explore long-term strategies for incorporating TPACK into evolving digital education frameworks.

Measurement of teacher competence through TPACK is very important to do. However, the majority of the instruments used to measure TPACK for elementary school teachers are not yet in line with the needs of the 21st Century. This study aims to develop a TPACK instrument for elementary school teachers in a valid and reliable Mathematic lesson. This study uses the quantitative research. The study sample involved 1490 teacher in elementary school, grade IV, V, and VI teachers from state and private elementary schools with A level of accreditation, spread across fourteen sub-districts in the Kabupaten Bogor. Data analysis techniques use Winsteps 4.0.1. So that, overall, this instrument can be used to measure TPACK of elementary school teachers in the content of mathematics lessons. This instrument can be used to map teacher competencies based on TPACK values. Furthermore, if there are some weaknesses in the 7 aspects of the TPACK, policy makers can determine the follow-up that needs to be determined to further improve the competence of elementary school teachers. The dimensions that stand out in this research are lesson content, teaching approach, technology, pedagogy, content, and mathematics.

Schools and Universities in Sri Lanka have been closed intermittently during the past three years due to COVID-19 and fuel shortages. During this period, in-person teaching became impossible, and online teaching was developed. However, schools have been reopened for in-person teaching and learning at present. In contrast, other countries adopted both methods, online and in-person. It was noticed that a decline in test scores among junior secondary students in some education zones during online learning. This study aimed to assess and compare the effectiveness of online and in-person teaching and learning science among junior secondary students in a selected school within the Kurunegala education zone. The study objectives were to 1). conduct both online and in-person science lessons for two groups separately and compare grade-eight students' performance in both settings; 2) compare teacher-student interaction, learning resources, peer group interaction, and motivation in both sittings; and 3) make suggestions for effective teaching and learning process. Two equally weighted courses were used to teach the two groups. Convenience sample of 72 Grade 8 students was used in the data collection with mixed methods approach. Pre-tests, post-tests, and questionnaires were used in the quantitative data collection. Qualitative data were collected via interviews with ten randomly selected students. The findings revealed that the performance scores of in-person group in Unit 4 (Properties of Matter) of grade-eight Science evaluation were slightly higher than that of online group. Both groups demonstrated similar performance levels in Unit 8 (Changes in Matter). However, in-person teaching exhibited significantly higher scores (p < 0.05) than the online group for factors such as teacher-student interaction, peer group interaction, learning resources, and motivation. Students achieved high results in both settings but needed more resources, reliable internet facilities, and adequate technology skills for online teaching and learning. The study suggests adapting effective instructional methods, technology usage, resource availability, training, participation, peer interactions, and monitoring well-being for effective online science teaching.

The COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia catalyses HEIs to fully utilise technology in teaching and learning, indirectly supporting one of the major shifts of the Malaysia Education Blueprint (Higher Education). Regardless, the readiness of lecturers in terms of their knowledge to teach online effectively is necessary to be investigated to enhance students’ learning and ensure the quality of online learning is at par with traditional learning during the pandemic, as the full adoption of online learning is a new norm in education. This study assesses students’ perception of applying the Technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) framework in teaching Al-Ghazali’s Dialogue: English Communication by lecturers in their online teaching. A quantitative approach and a correlational research design were conducted, and data were collected from 445 UPNM undergraduates through a questionnaire and then analysed using SPSS Version 25.0. The finding reveals that lecturers have a high level of content knowledge to provide relevant issues in selected case studies for students to evaluate critically in line with the course learning outcomes (CLO) outlined by this course. However, lecturers need to be more competent in resolving their technical problems instantly when dealing with digital platform compatibility issues. Additionally, the effectiveness of online teaching can be determined using student achievement as the indicator. These findings support the TPACK framework to describe the lecturers’ technology integration, and it assists lecturers in improving their knowledge. The study implies that a high level of lecturers’ TPACK creates quality online learning and enhances student achievement.

Technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) has evolved as a valuable model for understanding teacher performances in technology use in education to support pedagogy with proper content knowledge for the success of teaching and learning. Many self-report questionnaires have been developed for TPACK. However, limited studies assessed the extension of the questionnaires for a specific context. This study aims to develop and validate a questionnaire scale to assess elementary school teachers’ TPACK and the Use of the Internet (UotI). We used the scale to report TPACK’s internal relationships and TPACK with UotI. The study measured whether the model reflects transformative perspectives concerning how the domains (TPACK and UotI) interact. The initial scale consisted of 43 items, validated and assessed for reliability through some procedures; face and content validity, pilot study, and measurement model in the partial least-square structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). The scale was distributed to 1100 elementary school teachers. Findings inform that 40 scale items are valid and reliable for assessing teachers’ TPACK and UotI. The significant relationships of all factors support a transformative view of the scale.

The integration of technology into teaching and learning processes is highly relevant in today’s educational landscape, as technology has become essential for facilitating student learning. However, in practice, technology has not been fully optimized to develop students' critical thinking skills. The TPACK framework, which guides teachers in integrating technology into the learning process, must be continuously refined through relevant strategies. This study aims to describe how elementary school teachers' TPACK can be improved through collaborative, practical, and reflective approaches. A mixed methods design with an embedded experimental approach was employed. The study involved 84 teacher participants, randomly assigned to experimental and control groups. Data were collected using a 21st-century TPACK questionnaire and interviews. The findings indicate that collaborative, practical, and reflective approaches significantly enhanced elementary school teachers' TPACK. Statistical tests revealed a significant difference between the experimental and control groups, with the experimental group achieving higher average TPACK scores. Training that incorporates teacher collaboration, real-world classroom practices, and self-reflection effectively enhanced Technological Pedagogical Knowledge (TPK), contributing to the overall improvement of TPACK.

Online learning decisions during the COVID-19 pandemic have problems in its application. Besides infrastructure, teachers’ ability to integrate technology in learning is also an important factor that affects the success of online learning. In the current online learning, teachers are required to master Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPCK). Thus, this research aims to explore the Indonesian language teachers’ TPCK and readiness to conduct online learning during the COVID-19 outbreak. This research applied a survey method with 318 participating teachers in Lampung, Indonesia. The data were collected using questionnaires related to attitude, technological knowledge, content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge, technological content knowledge, technological pedagogical knowledge, and technological pedagogical content knowledge. They were then analyzed quantitatively using factor analysis and qualitatively based on the teachers’ answers to learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. The results demonstrate that Indonesian language teachers have adapted to the implementation of online learning related to the use of technology such as the variety of learning media and educational platforms used as well as TPCK skills. In general, teachers’ TPCK tends to be positive about online learning even though some senior teachers have a negative attitude to the technological aspects. They have difficulty using technology in learning so that the class looks monotonous and does not vary. The results of this research can be used as evaluation material by policymakers to improve the learning system.

This research aimed to measure Indonesian EFL teachers' Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) in the post-pandemic era. EFL teachers must have balanced technological knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, content knowledge, technological pedagogical knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge, technological pedagogical content knowledge, and web content knowledge since the Covid-19 pandemic has altered mainstream educational practices. Face-to-face instruction has shifted to online instruction, affecting EFL teachers' TPACK. The researcher hypothesized a significant difference in gender, age, and length of teaching experience in Indonesian EFL teachers' TPACK, particularly during online learning. The participants of this study were 24 Indonesian EFL teachers from 22 different schools and affiliations. An adopted TPACK questionnaire was administered to measure the Indonesian EFL teachers' TPACK during online learning. It consists of 25 total items. The data were calculated using SPSS version 26 software to determine each datum's U-value, mean, and standard deviation. This research revealed no significant difference in all aspects of TPACK based on the EFL teachers' gender. Moreover, there was no significant difference in the five aspects of TPACK based on the five age categories, except in Content Knowledge (CK). Furthermore, there was also no statistical difference in all aspects of TPACK based on the EFL teachers' length of teaching experience. However, age and teaching experience, particularly, contribute to shaping the Indonesian EFL teachers' level of TPACK.

The development of educational informatization imposes new requirements on the cultivation of teachers’ digital competence, which appeals to teachers who aim to optimize their teaching by integrating appropriate Information and Communication Technology (ICT). The requirement of digital competence corresponds to the meaning of Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK). Therefore, the development of teachers’ TPACK abilities can also positively influence the cultivation of their digital competence. The study was to examine the level of teachers’ TPACK abilities, and whether any difference in such abilities would be found according to the different teaching stages and teachers’ educational levels. An online questionnaire was distributed to the target teachers. Data of 1342 participants were analyzed. SPSS was used to conduct the descriptive statistics, and the non-parametric Kruskal–Wallis test with the post-hoc pairwise comparisons was used to determine teachers’ TPACK ability levels and explore the differences in teachers’ TPACK according to their different teaching stages and educational levels. The results indicated that teachers’ TPACK abilities were at a generally high level. Moreover, significant differences in teachers’ TPACK abilities were found in the teaching stages and educational levels. Teachers with different teaching stages have significant differences in Content Knowledge (CK), Pedagogical Knowledge (PK), Technological Pedagogical Knowledge (TPK), Technological Content Knowledge (TCK), and Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK). However, no difference was found between Technological Knowledge (TK) and Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK). In addition, the results suggested that the seven sub-dimensions of TPACK differed significantly according to teachers’ educational levels, where the higher the educational level, the better the teachers’ TPACK abilities. Therefore, teachers should effectively integrate technology and apply appropriate pedagogies according to the teaching content in different teaching stages. A planned and targeted series of ICT application training courses for teachers with lower educational levels would be helpful to improve their self-confidence in using technology to promote their teaching effectiveness.

The ability to integrate technology in learning, also known as Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPCK), is one of the competencies that teachers must master in the era of the Industrial Revolution 4.0. TPCK can be prepared when a teacher becomes a pre-service teacher at a university. The goal of this study was to describe the impact of Project-Based Learning (PjBL) on TPCK in elementary school pre-service teachers. This study is an experiment with a poor experimental method. The design applied is a one-group pretest-posttest design. The sample of this research is pre-service teachers or elementary school teacher education students as many as 94 students. Data collection instruments to measure TPCK are questionnaires and assessment sheets. The questionnaire was used to measure TK, PK, CK, TCK, PCK, and TPK. The assessment is used to measure TPCK. TPCK is assessed using the outcomes of student-created learning materials. The data is analyzed using descriptive statistics and inferential statistics. To describe the distribution of TPCK data, descriptive statistics are used. To test the study hypotheses, inferential statistics are used. The paired sample t-test was used to test the hypothesis. The descriptive analysis results suggest that the TPCK for pre-service teachers is in the high range. The hypothesis test results demonstrate that PjBL improves the TPCK of pre-service elementary school teachers. These findings highlighted PjBL's potential for TPCK development.

This study examines the mediating role of self-efficacy and belief between technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) and modes of technology use among elementary school teachers in China. Utilizing a predictive correlational research design, data were collected from 506 elementary school math teachers. structural equation modeling with AMOS version 18.0 was employed to rigorously examine the proposed model. Our findings revealed a significant correlation between TPACK and modes of technology use among elementary school teachers in China. Additionally, self-efficacy and belief were found to act as partial mediators in the relationship between TPACK and modes of technology use. We add to the existing literature by examining how self-efficacy and beliefs mediate the relationship between TPACK and the various ways elementary school teachers utilize technology.

Objectives The purpose of the study was to investigate Korean and native English teachers’ perceptions of online classes during the COVID-19 pandemic in terms of their technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK), techno-stress, teacher efficacy, and environmental support. The study also attempts to illustrate how the Korean and native English teachers have adapted to online classes during the COVID-19 pandemic and how their experience has affected their perceptions about online classes. Methods Data were collected through a survey questionnaire and interviews. A total of 37 (27 Korean, 10 native English) faculty members responded to the questionnaire and twelve of them participated in the interview. The responses in the survey were analyzed to compare the participants’ experience in online classes and their perceptions and interviews were coded to illustrate their adaptation process of teaching online classes. Results The results showed that there was no significant difference between the Korean and native English faculty groups in terms of their online class experience, and perception of TPACK, techno-stress, teacher efficacy, and environmental support. It was shown that the mean scores of TPACK and teacher efficacy were relatively high while their techno-stress was not high. The participants underwent the process of frustration, adaption, and reflection while coping with challenges of acquiring and utilizing technology-based instructional tools in their online classes. Though the participants were forced to adapt to online classes due to the COVID-19 pandemic, it helped them improve their technological skills and gain new understandings of their own classes and students. Conclusions The online class experience provided the participants an opportunity to improve their TPACK and to reflect on their teaching methods, students’ perspectives, and colleagues’ support. It can be suggested that teachers need to be encouraged and challenged to adapt to new teaching environments through which they can improve their teaching efficacy.

Objectives The purpose of the study was to investigate Korean and native English teachers’ perceptions of online classes during the COVID-19 pandemic in terms of their technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK), techno-stress, teacher efficacy, and environmental support. The study also attempts to illustrate how the Korean and native English teachers have adapted to online classes during the COVID-19 pandemic and how their experience has affected their perceptions about online classes. Methods Data were collected through a survey questionnaire and interviews. A total of 37 (27 Korean, 10 native English) faculty members responded to the questionnaire and twelve of them participated in the interview. The responses in the survey were analyzed to compare the participants’ experience in online classes and their perceptions and interviews were coded to illustrate their adaptation process of teaching online classes. Results The results showed that there was no significant difference between the Korean and native English faculty groups in terms of their online class experience, and perception of TPACK, techno-stress, teacher efficacy, and environmental support. It was shown that the mean scores of TPACK and teacher efficacy were relatively high while their techno-stress was not high. The participants underwent the process of frustration, adaption, and reflection while coping with challenges of acquiring and utilizing technology-based instructional tools in their online classes. Though the participants were forced to adapt to online classes due to the COVID-19 pandemic, it helped them improve their technological skills and gain new understandings of their own classes and students. Conclusions The online class experience provided the participants an opportunity to improve their TPACK and to reflect on their teaching methods, students’ perspectives, and colleagues’ support. It can be suggested that teachers need to be encouraged and challenged to adapt to new teaching environments through which they can improve their teaching efficacy.

This study investigated how teachers in China perceived the effects of online instruction on mathematics learning and examined the challenges they encountered when the country shifted to online instruction during the COVID-19 pandemic. We interviewed 152 mathematics teachers from 20 cities (municipalities) or provinces in China and adopted the four-component didactic tetrahedron model (teacher, technology, student, and mathematics) to identify their struggles with technology, teacher–student interactions, and delivery of mathematics instruction. Results showed that the teachers believed that the effectiveness of online teaching largely depends on student self-discipline. Analysis suggested a need to expand technology use during instruction, reshape the way teachers interact with students, and reorganize teaching methods in face-to-face classroom instruction. This research provided insights into integrating technology with instructional practice, the critical role of teachers in online learning, and other factors that may determine the effectiveness of online teaching.