Optimization of liquid smoke production from coconut shell waste via slow pyrolysis in a fixed-bed reactor using FCCD-RSM

Coconut shell waste pollutes the environment and affects public health. Converting coconut shell waste to pyrolytic oil (liquid smoke) with antimicrobial properties using microwave-assisted pyrolysis and activated charcoal as an absorbent is a promising solution. The purpose of this study is to investigate the process factors involved in the manufacture of coconut shell pyrolytic oil (liquid smoke) using microwave-assisted pyrolysis, to identify the chemical components in coconut shell pyrolytic oil, and to optimize the process factors using a face-centered central composite design (FCCD). This study further used coconut shells of various sizes (1–3 mm) and employed microwave-assisted pyrolysis with different power levels (300–600 W) and pyrolysis times (5–30 min). The results revealed that the pyrolytic oil (liquid smoke) yield increased as the time and microwave power increased but decreased as the size of the materials decreased. The optimum yield obtained was 34.6% at the following conditions: power of 593.6 W, material size of 2.9 mm, and heating time of 28.5 min. The analysis of the components of the volatile compounds in the pyrolytic oil (liquid smoke) product obtained from gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC–MS) analysis identified a total of 14 chemical components in coconut shell pyrolytic oil (liquid smoke) at 300 W, 15 compounds at 450 W, and only 5 components at 600 W. Among these compounds, phenol, dimethoxy phenol, guaiacol, hydroxyanisole, and methoxyphenol were found to have the highest concentrations. The outcomes of this study offer valuable contributions to the development of pyrolytic oil (liquid smoke) products with enhanced quality, flavor, and potential applications in the food industry

Coconut shell waste can generate environmental problems if left without treatment, as it contains lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose compounds, which pyrolyze to produce liquid smoke, charcoal, and tar. This study aims to prepare and characterize liquid smoke using several parameters, including the chemical content preserving tofu and the hedonic test of consumer preferences. The dried coconut shell (3000 g) was pyrolyzed at 300 °C for 5 h. Liquid smoke (grade 3) was purified by distillation (grade 2) and filtered with activated charcoal to produce grade 1 liquid smoke. The liquid smoke properties were characterized as yield, pH, phenol, and moisture, while the chemical components were identified by gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (GC-MS). For the commercial and coconut shell liquid smoke (grade 1) used in this study, the application was aimed at preserving the tofu for three days. Panelists observed the aroma, the texture, and the appearance compared to the control. Ten panelists performed the hedonic test of fried preserved tofu. The organoleptic aspects included taste, texture, aroma, and color. The liquid smoke obtained from coconut shell pyrolysis was red-brown, with a yield of 52.75%, pH 0.5 (grade 3), pH 1.7 (grade 2), and pH 2.3, with a total phenol of 2.479 (grade 1). The GC-MS results exhibited three essential chemical compounds, namely phenol, methoxy phenol, and hydroxyphenyl phosphonic acid, influencing the preservation. The liquid smoke solution extended the shelf life of tofu, especially at a concentration of 1.5 (% v/v), so the water content decreased. The average panelist responded “good” on the hedonic test on all of the tofu treatments compared to the control.

Smoking is an age-old food preservation method. Intense smoking results in deposition of carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in food. Replacing traditional smoking practices with application of liquid smoke or smoke flavouring is proven to reduce the PAH content without adversely affecting flavour of the products. This study explores source-dependant variations in composition of a coconut-flavoured liquid smoke. Liquid smoke produced from coconut husk (CH), coconut fibre (CF) and coconut fibre powder (CP) was analysed for total phenolic content, total carbonyls, titratable acidity, pH and PAH content. Resultant liquid smokes were also compared a commercial liquid smoke (CL) for composition. Total phenolic content in the liquid smokes ranged from 1518 ± 184 (CH), 1037 ± 110 (CF), 834 ± 48.23(CP) and 20047 ± 193 mg L−1 (CL). Commercial liquid smoke showed highest total PAH content 215 ± 15.45 ng ml−1 followed by 8.23 ± 1.47 (CP), 7.22 ± 1.44 (CF) and 0.64 ± 0.13 ng m−1 (CH). Further, process parameters for producing ‘masmin’ – a popular traditional smoked and dried ready-to-eat product – by replacing traditional smoking practices with liquid smoking were standardised using Response Surface Methodology. Spraying cooked skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis) loins with coconut husk liquid smoke containing 4% salt for 155 min at flow rate of 3 L hr−1 and chamber temperature of 60°C was found to give the product a matching flavour with traditional masmin.

Liquid smoke, a product from coconut shell waste, is a food preservative and antimicrobial substitute. It is produced through pyrolysis at 400-600°C, producing solid, liquid, and gas products. Toxicity studies need to be conducted to test the safety of medicinal products. This is because medicinal products that meet the requirements are those that have proven their efficacy and safety. Liquid smoke, especially grade 1, has not been studied further regarding its safety. This study aimed to determine the acute toxicity potential of grade 1 coconut shell liquid smoke. The experimental method involved collecting and processing samples, making liquid smoke, purifying them, and testing the effects of acute dermal toxicity. Results showed mild damage to liver and kidney organs, with microscopic liver tissue damage and kidney tissue damage. Keywords: Cocos nucifera L., liquid smoke, toxicity, acute, subchronic

The Liquid smoke can be use for food preservation, be obtained from pyrolysis of materials containing cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. The form of liquid smoke that has the ability to preserve,for their phenolic compounds,acids and carbonyl. The purpose of this research is to know the quality of liquid smoke from process of charcoal the biomass obtained from rotary pyrolysis carbonisator as fish preservative, the effect of liquid smoke on the chemical and organoleptic properties of fish, and the resilience of fish after being given smoke liquid. The metode of experiments with skin biomass of durian, coconut shell, and palm shell. Biomass is dried, then is burned in rotary carbonisator pyrolysis. The results ofthe process are namely liquid, tar and charcoal smoke. Next, Liquid smoke is precipitated and then it is distilled twice, namely ordinary distillation and vacuum distillation. Results combustion produces liquid smoke with a yield of 19% on the skin of durian, 23.6% on coconut shell, and 20.8% on palm shells. Organoleptic test results on the fish with the addition of liquid smoke from the skin of durian with a concentration of 5 % is most preferred by the panellists in terms of color, aroma, flavor, and texture.

Liquid smoke contains various compounds that can be grouped into groups of phenolic compounds, acids, and groups of carbonyl compounds. These compound groups act as antimicrobials, antioxidants, flavoring, and coloring agents. Because liquid smoke can act as an antimicrobial and antioxidant, liquid smoke can be used as a preservative. Liquid smoke is classified as grade 3, 2, and 1 according to its properties and applications. The results of this research are phytochemical analysis for all variations of liquid smoke, showing the content of phenols, flavonoids, tannins, glycosides, and steroids/triterpenoids. The characterization results of various grades liquid smoke (3; 2; 1) respectively are yield (9.75% w/w; 60%v/v; 50.9%v/v), pH value (2.68; 2.46; 2.42), total acid (13.44%; 14.34%; 17.36%), specific gravity of (1.0499; 1.0435; 1.0421 g/mL), total phenol content (23.0186; 12.3135; 7.8879), Pb and Cd levels of 0.218; 0.207; 0.202 mg/L and 0.019; 0.010; 0.008mg/L. Identification using UV-Vis and FTIR spectrophotometry. Isolation using thin-layer chromatography showed that it contained flavonoids with an Rf value of 0.31, 0.31, 0.29. The conclusion was that various grades liquid smoke can be produced with appropriate characteristics and have high total phenol potential.

Liquid smoke is a natural food preservative which can be made of coconut shells through the pyrolysis process. This study aimed to design a pyrolysis reactor and utilize the coconut shell waste to produce liquid smoke as a natural preservative of tofu. 1.5 kg of chopped coconut shell was pyrolyzed at 400C for 5 hours and produced 488 mL of grade 3 liquid smoke with a yield of 34.23%. The liquid smoke was then purified by extraction using ethyl acetate (1: 1 ratio) solvent and 70C temperature for 2 hours. The extract was then distilled at 80C and produced grade 1 liquid smoke. This liquid smoke had an acid content of 12.26% and a phenol content of 0.73%. This liquid smoke was then applied to tofu for 3 days and analyzed the microbial contamination. The smallest amount of microbial contamination was found in the samples of yellow tofu and white tofu coated with liquid smoke and stored in the refrigerator for 1.4 × 105 CFU / mL and 8 × 103 CFU/ml.

Liquid smoke is the condensation result of wood pyrolysis. It contains lots of compounds formed by constituent pyrolysis process such as cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. Lignin can be used to produce organic acids, phenols, carbonyl that become the compound of natural antibiotics, antioxidants, antibiotic, disinfectants, or as biopesticides and food preservation. Those compounds have different proportions such as type, wood moisture and pyrolysis temperature. Liquid smoke from wood can be used as natural antibiotics contains compounds that can be extracted such as phenol derivatives, which can inhibit microbes’ growth. There are many studies about raw materials of liquid smoke such as: rice husk, coconut shell, Meranti sawdust, corncob and cinnamon. Based on literature study, Liquid smoke from coconut shell has percentage phenol 2.24%, total acid 15.7% highest than other material. Followed by the lowest pH 1.41. It can be concluded liquid smoke from coconut shell can be used natural antibiotics in animals. Coconut shell liquid smoke as a natural antibiotic has limitation in distribution and susceptible to physical and chemical changes during storage. Therefore, it was necessary to developed encapsulation of coconut shell liquid smoke. The functional properties of liquid smoke microcapsules can be maintained by using chitosan and maltodextrin as encapsulant. The aims of this review are to understand coconut shell as the best raw material of liquid smoke, after being encapsulated that can be used as natural antibiotics in animals. Based on literature study, coconut shell liquid smoke encapsulated using maltodextrin-chitosan has pH (2.70 ± 0.08), total acid (2.70 ± 0.08%) and total phenol (4.40 ± 0.05%). The paper stresses the need for more studies on using of liquid smoke encapsulated of coconut shell as natural antibiotics in animals.

ABSTRAK Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah mengetahui Pengaruh Proteksi Tepung Ikan Menggunakan Asap Cair dari Tempurung Kelapa terhadap Fermentabilitas In Vitro dilihat dari NH3 dan pH dan mengetahui konsentrasi asap cair yang dapat digunakan pada proteksi bahan pakan tinggi protein. Penelitian ini dilakukan dengan menggunakan Rancangan Acak Lengkap dengan tiga perlakuan dan 2 ulangan. Perlakuan sebagai berikut: : P0 = Tepung ikan tanpa perlakuan, P1 = Tepung ikan + Asap cair dari tempurung kelapa konsentrasi 10%, P2 = Tepung ikan + Asap cair dari tempurung kelapa konsentrasi 20%, P3 = Tepung ikan + Asap cair dari tempurung kelapa konsentrasi 30%. Peubah yang diamati NH3 dan pH. Masing-masing perlakuan ditambahkan asap cair sebanyak 5 %. Tepung ikan diproteksi dengan asap cair dari tempurung kelapa caranya dengan menyemprotkan asap cair tersebut ke bahan tersebut kemudian didiamkan semalam. Hasil rerata nilai kadar NH3 pada penelitian ini antara 11 – 23 mg/100 gram. Rerata pH P0 dan P1 yang dihasilkan adalah 5,75±0,01 dan 5,51±0,01 sedangkan P2 dan P3 masing-masing 5,32±0,01 dan 5,20±0,01. Kadar NH3 dan pH yang ideal sesuai dengan kondisi didalam rumen adalah proteksi tepung ikan mengunakan asap cair dengan konsentrasi 0% dan 10 % Kata kunci : Asap cair, NH3, pH, proteksi, tepung ikan

Slow pyrolysis (SP) and fast pyrolysis (FP) of rice husks, coconut shells and their mixtures were studied in a fixed bed reactor. The objectives of this study were to compare the yields and properties of bio-oils produced using SP and FP methods within a pyrolysis temperature range of 400 °C to 600 °C. Three different biomass compositions, 100% rice husks (RH), 100% coconut shells (CS) and a mixture of 50% rice husks with 50% of coconut shells (RH50/CS50) were experimented. In SP, the maximum yield of bio-oil for RH, CS and RH50/CS50 were 45.45%, 37.01%, 38.29% at temperatures of 550 °C, 500 °C and 600 °C respectively. As for FP, the maximum bio-oil yield obtained for RH, CS and RH50/CS50 were 50.52%, 40.14% and 42.25% at temperatures of 500 °C, 600 °C and 550 °C respectively. At these optimum pyrolysis temperatures, the percentage differences in bio oil yields for SP and FP were 10.57%, 8.11% and 9.83% for RH, CS and RH50/CS50 respectively. Based on American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) standard procedures, the properties of bio-oil were characterised and it was found that the bio oil produced by FP at optimum temperatures were less acidic, higher density, lower water content and viscosity as compared to the bio-oil produced by SP method for all biomass compositions.

Introduction: Liquid smoke is a product that obtained industrially from coconut shell through pyrolysis process at 400°C for 2,5 hours and redestillation to obtain grade 1 liquid smoke. Coconut shell liquid smoke contains chemical compounds, namely phenol, which has been researched to act as a disinfectant that has broad spectrum antibacterial activity against gram positive and gram negative bacteria. Method: This study aims to determine the potential of cocos nucifera L. liquid smoke as an antibacterial against Staphylococcus aureus and Methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) bacteria using diffusion and dilution methods. The concentrations used were 100%, 80%, 60%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 15%, 10%, 7%, 5%. As positive control was used Tetracycline 25 ppm. Results: Liquid smoke has the potential to inhibit the growth of both bacteria. The effective concentration to inhibit the growth of S. aureus at 40% concentration and MRSA at 80% concentration. The MIC value of liquid smoke against S. aureus is 0,78%, while on MRSA 3,12%. The MBC of S. aureus and MRSA bacteria at concentrations 1,56% and 6,25%. Staphylococcus aureus has higher sensitivity to Cocos nucifera L. grade 1 liquid smoke than MRSA bacteria. Conclusion: Cocos nucifera L. liquid smoke has antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and MRSA at effective concentrations of 40% and 80%. The MIC value of S. aureus is 0,78%, while MRSA is 3,12%. The MBC of S. aureus and MRSA bacteria at concentrations 1,56% and 6,25%. Keywords: antibacterial, liquid smoke, phenol, Cocos nucifera L.

Liquid smoke is the condensation result of wood pyrolysis. It contains lots of compounds formed by the constituent pyrolysis process such as cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. Lignin can be used to produce organic acids, phenols, carbonyl that become the compound of natural antibiotics, antioxidants, antibiotics, disinfectants, or as biopesticides and food preservation. Those compounds have different proportions such as type, wood moisture and pyrolysis temperature. This research uses a completely random design with three repetitions. The treatments were liquid smoke raw materials source: P0 = coconut shell, P1 = rice husk and P2 = coconut shell + rice husk (50:50). The parameters measured include pH, yield (%), total acid (%), polyphenols (%) and flavonoids (ppm). The result of this research on the production of liquid smoke that is produced by various raw materials shows: Various raw materials influence the performance of pyrolysis equipment, liquid smoke chemical and physical qualities. Based on this research, Liquid smoke from coconut shell has a percentage yield of 3.23% polyphenol 1.14%, total acid 0.54% and flavonoid 1.06 ppm. Liquid smoke from coconut shell and Liquid smoke maker very potential to be developed and produce, also partiularly to reach a higher temperature.

Currently the rottenable food material needs for preservation technology that was safe for people's health. Recently, liquid smoke technology which is used as an alternative material of food preservatives is from any agricultural waste. Liquid smoke beginning to develop by researchers, to get the higher quality in order to become safe for consumption by the public and not contains carcinogenic substance. The purpose of this study was to determine the performance of liquid smoke tools, the quantity and quality of liquid smoke. In this research, the material used was corn cob and coconut shell using the main tool of pyrolysis reactor, with the optimum operating conditions and then analyzed using GC/MS and LC/MS. The result showed that the yield of liquid smoke coconut shell without drying and through drying was 36% and 28.8%, while from the corn cob was 61.2% and 30.4%. Charcoal of coconut shell 33% and 50% while from the corn cob was 16.7% and 33.3%. The number of missing components from coconut shell is 31% and 21.2% while from the corn cob was 22.1% and 36.3%%. Performance of liquid smoke tools from coconut shell is 4.37 g/(hour.m) and 5.59 g/(hour.m) while from corncobs is 7.42 g/(hour.m) and 7.37 g/(hour.m). The phenol quality of the resulting liquid smoke from coconut shell and corncob was 3.04% and 1.38%. Acidity quality was 7.3% and 1.3%. The value of pH was 1.41 and 2.47.

This study investigates the production of liquid smoke using autothermal slow pyrolysis, utilizing organic waste materials such as leaves, wood, and coconut shells as feedstock. Autothermal slow pyrolysis offers a sustainable method to convert biomass into liquid smoke, utilizing heat generated within the pyrolysis process. The produced liquid smoke was rigorously tested in laboratory settings to assess its chemical composition and conformity with SNI 8985:2021 standards. Results indicate that the liquid smoke meets the specifications outlined in the standard, confirming its quality and safety for application as a plant pesticide. Furthermore, efficacy tests demonstrated significant insecticidal, positioning the liquid smoke as a viable biopesticide alternative. The environmental impact of this innovation program includes a reduction of non-hazardous waste, specifically organic waste, by 0,531 tons per year. Additionally, the program provides cost savings within the company by reducing waste disposal expenses and by replacing chemical liquid smoke with the organic waste-derived liquid smoke, resulting in savings of Rp 9,108,000 in 2024. This research underscores the dual benefits of environmental sustainability and economic efficiency through the utilization of liquid smoke derived from organic waste via autothermal slow pyrolysis, promoting eco-friendly pest management solutions while reducing reliance on synthetic pesticides.

This study aims to determine the yield and quality of liquid smoke in the form of pH values, acid levels, and phenol levels from the burning of red fruit seed waste as raw material for grade 3 liquid smoke using pyrolysis equipment. Liquid smoke is used as an alternative food preservative and flavor enhancer that it can use in the food processing industry to minimize the use of harmful preservatives such as formalin. But it also can be used as a biopesticide in agriculture so that it becomes an alternative to chemical pesticides in controlling pests. It was researched at the Research Laboratory of the Chemical Engineering Department FTI UMI Makassar in July 2020 and the Agrotechnology Laboratory of the Petra Baliem Wamena Agricultural Science College in April 2021. The research activity began by making grade 3 liquid smoke because liquid smoke can be used as a biopesticide at this level. Then proceed with the analysis of the chemical and physical content of liquid smoke. The research method used was an experimental method with six replications on the amount of red fruit seed waste 500 g, 1000 g, and 1500 g. The pyrolysis process was carried out at temperatures ranging from 300-400ºC for 180 minutes. The results of the observations from the tests carried out showed that the liquid smoke of red fruit seed waste produced was more in the weight or quantity of red fruit seed waste 1000 g was BM2 treatment which had a pH value of 3.35, the acid content of 14.20%, total phenol content of 4.91%, quite brown. Thick and smells like liquid smoke. The high levels of acid ranging from 13.73-14.20% and high levels of phenol ranging from 4.91-5.11% compared to previous studies with raw materials for liquid smoke of rice husks, coconut shells, and organic waste, made the liquid smoke of red fruit seed waste as a biopesticide with repellant and anti-inflammatory properties. Insects ate them because acids and phenols can provide an aromatic that insects do not like.