ОПИСАНИЕ НА ПРОСТАТА СИНТАКТИЧНА ГРУПА V  PR / A DESCRIPTION OF THE SIMPLE SYNTACTIC GROUPS FORMED BY A VERB AND A PREPOSTION (V  PR)

Any language is a constantly changing historical phenomenon. This applies to all aspects of the language: grammar and vocabulary, phonetics and spelling. The main purpose of studying the history of the language is to explain the current stage of its existence, allowing you to better understand its modern peculiarities. Much research in the theory and history of the grammatical structure of the English language is directed toward grammatical categories of the English verb. This article is devoted to the study of grammatical categories in old English, in particular, the study of the meanings of the category of tense and aspect. In old English the grammatical category of tense and aspect has its own peculiarities. The purpose of this article is to study the concept and evolution of the grammatical category of verb tense and aspect, to identify the main features and specifics of their functioning on the synchronous cross section of the old English period. In order to reveal the full extent of these categories in old English, it is necessary to determine the ways and means of their expression, analyze the cases of their use in speech. For this purpose, it is necessary to trace the use of grammatical categories of tense and aspect in the syntactic structure of the sentence.

The article aims at providing a precise formal description of the syntax of simple constructions consisting of a head verb and a subordinate adverb. The analysis em-ploys the mechanisms of syntactic accommodation and connotation. The study of the processes of accommodation and connotation in simple syntactic constructions of the type V → Adv in terms of the presence or absence of connotation (+/- connotation) has resulted in distinguishing two subtypes of syntactic constructions: 1. Non-connoted simple syntactic groups consisting of a verb and an adverb; 2. Con-noted simple syntactic groups consisting of a verb and an adverb. Within the first type of constructions two subtypes have been further identified on the basis of the presence or absence of the feature of accommodation (+/- accommodation) – constructions in which the adverb is not connoted and not accommodated and constructions that are not connoted but are accommodated with respect to the categories of person, number, aspect, tense, mood and polarity. Within the second type of constructions the presence or absence of the feature of accommodation (+/- accommodation) has also led to dis-tinguishing two subtypes: a group of syntactic constructions without accommodation according to person, number, aspect, tense, mood and polarity, and a restricted group of syntactic constructions that are accommodated according to the categories of polar-ity, person and number. The analysis employing the chosen methodology extends and refines previous descriptions of the simple syntactic constructions with a head verb and a subordinate adverb. Keywords: simple syntactic constructions, verbs, adverbs, connotation, accommo-dation, syntax, Bulgarian language

The thesis is divided into seven chapters and is mainly devoted to an analysis, in formal terms, of the grammatical categories of mood, polarity, tense, person, number, transitivity and aspect that need to be set up for a synchronic description of the verbal piece in Nzema. The introductory first chapter presents a general classification of the verb as a linguistic unit in the grammar, the characteristic phonological features of the verb word and its grammatical features; and, as a convenient reference, a summary of the grammatical categories set up together with the systems of their terms is provided. Chapter 2 presents, as a necessary background, a phonetic and phonological description of the speech sounds of Nzema. The remaining chapters 3-7 contain the main body of the analysis of the grammatical categories. Chapter 3 deals with the three terms of indicative, interrogative and imperative set up within the category of Mood. Chapter 4 considers the category of Polarity in its specific relation to imperative mood clauses and treats together the two categories of Polarity and Tense as they relate to indicative and interrogative mood clauses. In the description of the various tense forms and their distinctive features, two contexts, marked by a nominal phrase or pronominal subject, are selected for the examples. Chapter 5 presents together the closely-related categories of Person and Number. Chapter 6 deals with the sets of grammatical relations between the verb and any items that may follow it in the clause by means of the seven terms; transitive, complex transitive, intransitive, complex semi-transitive, semi-transitive, ditransitive and relational within the category of Transitivity. A sub-classification of the verbs capable of occurring in each transitivity clause-type is also provided. Finally, Chapter 7 treats the tripartite distinction between normal and ingressive, dynamic and stative, and causative and non-causative within the category of Aspect.

The present paper deals with two universal linguistic phenomena, homeostasis and compensation. The author examines their function in relation to two categories, aspect and tense in the history of the Slavic languages. It is beyond doubt that one of the most important categories of the Slavic verb is aspect the origin of which may lie in the Proto-Indo-European language. The effects of its emergence as a verbal category were far-reaching and can be well traced in the history of the most Slavic languages. Taking a close look to the linguistic data, it seems quite obvious that the category of tense and aspect were closely related and did interact, creating different patterns in modern Slavic languages. A certain competition between the category of aspect and that of tense can already be observed in Old Slavic and also in Old Russian and Old Polish where tenses like the aorist and the imperfect were becoming increasingly obsolete. The perfect, on the contrary, has gained ground, while the pluperfect has almost completely fallen into disuse. In the further development, the aspectual opposition also extended to the future tenses thereby affecting the entire tense system. This scenario took place everywhere in the East and West Slavic languages with some nuanced differences. Consequently, in the aspect-tense system of the modern East and West Slavic languages the tendency of the category of aspect to prevail over the category of tense together with the gradual decline in the number of tenses seems to be quite clear. The South Slavic languages, however, have taken a slightly different path showing perhaps the most complex picture. Although the Serbian and Croatian languages have preserved the old tenses, their use is rather limited. In terms of their aspectual development, these languages are getting closer and closer to the Eastern and Western Slavic language groups. In contrast, in Bulgarian and Macedonian one can see an intricate interplay of the aspectual system and the developed tense system. In the case of the change of the different Slavic languages, the phenomenon of linguistic compensation can be observed in all cases on the example of aspect and tense categories as the main means of striving to maintain linguistic homeostasis. Keywords: linguistic homeostasis, compensation, aspect, tense, Old Slavic, Slavic languages, Polish

The paper studies the nature of the interplay between viewpoint aspect and tense in the temporal systems of Modern Hebrew and Biblical Hebrew, focusing on the suffixed verb form qaṭal and on the participial verb form qoṭel common to both. The examination of these temporal systems is couched in a neo-reichenbachian framework, taking the categories of viewpoint aspect and tense to consist of relations between temporal intervals (also known as the “two dimensional theory of tense”). It follows from this framework that viewpoint aspect and tense are encoded in any given temporal system, and languages differ in whether they contrastively mark tenses and/or aspects. When only one of the categories is morphologically marked, it is assumed that the other marks a default value. In the current context, it will be shown that viewpoint aspect properties of the verbal forms remain essentially unchanged over the two periods: qoṭel expressed, and still does, imperfective viewpoint aspect, with some characteristics of a progressive, whereas qaṭal expressed, and still does, a default viewpoint aspect that is interpreted as perfective according to the lexical aspectual properties of the underlying VP. In contrast, the properties of the tense categories in the systems have undergone a significant change: in Biblical Hebrew, the category of tense, in these particular forms, but possibly also more generally in the system, mark only a default value where the two temporal intervals, R and S, are not ordered in any specific manner, but rather present a temporal overlap; in Modern Hebrew, the category of tense contrasts temporal values, where R and S are clearly ordered with respect to each other: overlap, precedence. It will be suggested that this state of affairs is correlated with the (im)possibility of the forms to express narrative progression. Given that narrative progression involves update of R, this is not possible when the temporal relation between R and S is one of general overlap, blocking R progression. In Biblical Hebrew, narrative progression is achieved via the sequential w-forms, which have later disappeared from the system.

I.A. Shirokikh. Emotional Constituent of the Category of Tense and the Category of Aspect (Based on the Lyrics of English Songs). The article deals with two most important grammatical categories of the English language: the category of Tense and the category of Aspect. The author of the article offers theories about these grammatical categories, provided by foreign linguists. The theoretical aspects are proved with the examples from English songs, performed by the band The 1975. While writing lyrics, the author of the songs uses this or that Tense, Simple or Continuous Aspect, having a definite idea in his mind. It is the emotions he wants to present to the audience that determine the author’s choice. Any deviation from grammar norms / realization of syntagmatic meanings of a grammatical category creates some emotional effect, realization of emotional constituent of a definite grammatical category. Matty Healy, the author of the lyrics, implements this device and the examples given in the article prove that. Thus, the research combines theoretical background of the category of Tense and the category of Aspect, still debated by Russian and foreign linguists, as well as presentation of the two categories realization in the English song lyrics.

This paper introduces the framework for a new project on the categories of tense, aspect and Aktionsart in Latin. In the first section, the relevant concepts are defined in terms of general linguistics. The second section provides an overview of the existing theories regarding the verb system and the categories of tense and aspect in Latin. Their shortcomings are listed while the strong points serve as the basis for the development of the current framework. In the third section, Bache’s [2008. English Tense and Aspect in Halliday’s Systemic Functional Grammar: A Critical Appraisal and an Alternative. Discussions in Functional Approaches to Language. London: Equinox.] SFL-inspired account of English tense and aspect is applied to the Latin verb system, conceptualizing tense and aspect in terms of three metafunctions or dimensions of meaning: ideational (representation of reality), textual (presentation of the text) and interpersonal (interaction with the audience). In the fourth section, the framework is illustrated with texts from Caesar, Livy and Sallust, showing that “perspective” (focalization) is essential to the linguistic analysis of narratives.

The Bulgarian National Revival, which spanned the period from the second half of the eighteenth century until the Liberation from Ottoman rule in 1878, was a period of awakening of national consciousness in almost every sphere of life and a return to the European sphere of civilization. One major aspect of the Bulgarian National Revival was the formation and thereafter the standardization of the modern Bulgarian literary language with a focus on the establishment of the lexis. The Bulgarian language had undergone, between the twelfth and fifteenth centuries, crucial changes in its morphological and phonological systems, changes which were hardly reflected in the almost exclusively religious and liturgical manuscripts of the Middle Bulgarian period because of their holy and therefore deliberately preserved archaic character.1 The Middle Bulgarian period was a transitory stage in the history of the Bulgarian language, yet the general trend in written practice was to maintain the manuscripts copied as close as possible to the Old Bulgarian originals or to imitate Old Bulgarian in original works. Patriarkh Evtimii's strongly conservative orthographic reforms of the second half of the fourteenth century were a 'natural' reaction against the steadily increasing discrepancies between the literary and the spoken language which led to the admission of 'mistakes' from the vernacular into the religious and liturgical literature. Later on, during the modern Bulgarian period (fifteenth century onwards), the basis for a modern Bulgarian literary language was being laid, mainly through the damaskini (seventeenth and eighteenth centuries), which were a new kind of religious literature in the vernacular, translated from and inspired by Greek models, and Paisii Khilendarski's Istoriia slavenobolgarskaia of 1762. At that time, the role of Church Slavonic became more and more important, which was a phonetically slightly russified but standardized form of Old Bulgarian, imported from Russia to Bulgaria in the form of printed literature from the seventeenth century onwards, and which finally replaced the Middle Bulgarian manuscripts used in Bulgaria

The subject of the article is the absence of an aspect category, expressing main ideas of sentence propositions in the morphology of the Kazakh language and the conceptual confusion of the aspect category with tense category in the Kazakh language, which create certain difficulties not only in learning of the Kazakh language but also making correct translation from Kazakh into other languages or vice versa. It has no official title, fixed in academic dictionaries, in spite of having objective content plans and expression plans in the Kazakh language. There are different opinions about the aspect category in the Kazakh language, some linguists consider, that there is the aspect category in the Kazakh language, others deny it. The result is the aspect category has not been presented in the morphology of the Kazakh verbs. The article is devoted to analyzing the objective prerequisites creating the aspect category in languages, including the Kazakh language and reasons of appearing of subjective negations of the aspect category in this language.

The article deals on the Greek loan words in the Bulgarian standard language. The main target of the article is to show in which fields of life the use of the Greek loan words is dominating and in which not. We excepted the loan words in the Bulgarian dialects, because the situation is too different from that in the standard language, and also the loan words, which came by Greek mediation into the Bulgarian language. So we found out, that only ten percent of the Greek loan words are common for all Bulgarian dialects. The existence of the Greek loan words is only to compare with the Turkish loan words. The comparison of both groups shows, that the influence of the greek group is quite different from that of the Turkish. The Greek language took the longest influence on the Bulgarian, however there are lots of Greek words, which are not genuine Greek.

<p>The article deals with the conception of categorial verbality of Yuriy Shevelyov. In the  eight-component basic system of the parts of speech with secondary intermediate status of Parti-ciple (Verb ↔Adjective), Verbal Adverb (Verb ↔Adverb) and the specific dimension of Infinitive (Verb ←Infinitive →Noun) the Verb is qualified through comparison with Adjective and deter-mining of specialized internal sentence load (predicative). General spatial verbality in interpreta-tive-qualifying and classification-normative grammar model of Yuriy Shevelyov covers two defining verb-forming hierarchically top categories – Tense and Mood with adjoining to them regular category of Aspect. Categoriality of Person and Number are functionally blurred in the verb. There is the relevant study of categorial verbality by Yu. Shevelyov, as the researcher substantiated its qualification on the original postulates of grammatical theory of O. Potebnya taking into account the active developments of formal grammatical approach to the analysis of verbality. The purpose of the analysis is to establish the characteristics of the verbality interpretation by Yuriy Shevelyov with consistent clarification of internal and external parts of speech status load of categorial-verbal formations, determination of hierarchy of verbal categories, tracing their disparity. According to the stated purpose the solution of the following tasks is relevant: 1) to ana-lyze the grammatical conception of verbality of Yuriy Shevelyov; 2) to establish the expressions of grammatical tradition continuity in verbality conception of the prominent linguist; 3) to determine the scope of the verbality concept by Yuriy Shevelyov; 4) to trace the loading of the parts of speech categories in verbality classification by the scientist; 5) to characterize the “power space” of the linguistic-paradigm space in the development of grammatical conception of Yuriy Shevelyov. The scientific novelty of the study is motivated by the comprehension of conceptual and theoretical heritage of Yuriy Shevelyov in general, and qualification of verbality made by him with the de-termination of the qualifying characteristics of verbality and also the entire range of its categorial forms. The theoretical value of the proposed study is motivated by the substantiation of conceptual and grammatical verbality by Yuriy Shevelyov with outlining of its load in the history of linguistic thought.The grammatical conception of Yuriy Shevelyov by its main dimensions is interpretation-qualifying and classification-normative one, based on three postulates – scientific, normative and stylistic. One prospective is the holistic study of grammatical conception of Yuriy Shevelyov with the establishment of the basic (landmark) points of the evolution of his scientific views through the consistent application of the comparative-historical research methodology in the investigations.</p>

The category of aspect in the history of linguistic research has been the subject of many considerations and studies. The approach to its functioning and scope has undergone a lot of changes. Originally regarded as a subcategory of tense, it is nowadays commonly seen as a separate category, albeit one that contributes to the temporal system of language. The earliest aspectologists only dealt with languages of the Indo-European family in their research – first Slavic and later Germanic. In these languages, it is related to the morphology of the verb and for this reason it was common to consider aspect as a grammatical or primarily grammatical category. The topic of aspect in relation to Indo-European languages has seen numerous publications. Less attention has been paid to the precise description of this category in Mandarin Chinese, although there are numerous publications dealing with the subject. Initially, scholars associated aspect with deictic tense, and it was not until the 1940s that the differences between the two began to be recognised and the semantics of aspect were addressed, although the work emerging at that time can hardly be considered of value. It is only the research of Smith (1991) that is considered the first significant turn of sinological aspectology in this direction, and it remains an inspiration for aspectologists conducting research on Mandarin Chinese to this day. The lack of greater attention paid to aspect by linguists at this stage may be due to typological issues. This is because the Chinese language is analytic, with a tendency towards agglutination. Instead, the languages under study are mainly inflectional languages, in which both the category of aspect and tense are embedded in the morphology of the verb.

Distinctions of time are among the most common notions expressed in morphology cross-linguistically. But the inventories of distinctions marked in individual languages are also varied. Some languages have few if any morphological markers pertaining to time, while others have extensive sets. Certain categories do recur pervasively across languages, but even these can vary subtly or even substantially in their uses. And they may be optional or obligatory. The grammar of time is traditionally divided into two domains: tense and aspect. Tense locates situations in time. Tense markers place them along a timeline with respect to some point of reference, a deictic center. The most common reference point is the moment of speech. Many languages have just three tense categories: past for situations before the time of speech, present for those overlapping with the moment of speech, and future for those subsequent to the moment of speech. But many languages have no morphological tense, some have just two categories, and some have many more. In some languages, morphological distinctions correspond fairly closely to identifiable times. There may, for example, be a today (hodiernal) past that contrasts with a yesterday (hesternal) past. In other languages, tense distinctions are more fluid. A recent past might be interpreted as ‘some time earlier today’ for a sentence meaning ‘I ate a banana’, but ‘within the last few months’ for a sentence meaning ‘I returned from Africa’. Languages also vary in the mobility of the deictic center. In some languages tense distinctions are systematically calibrated with respect to the moment of speaking. In others, the deictic center may shift. It may be established by the matrix clause in a complex sentence. Or it may be established by a larger topic of discussion. Tense is most often a verbal category, because verbs generally portray the most dynamic elements of a situation, but a number of languages distinguish tense on nouns as well. Aspect characterizes the internal temporal structure of a situation. There may be different forms of a verb ‘eat’, for example, in sentences meaning ‘I ate lamb chops’, ‘I was eating lamb chops’, and ‘I used to eat lamb chops’, though all are past tense. They may pick out one phase of the situation, with different forms for ‘I began to eat’, ‘I was eating’, and ‘I ate it up’. They may make finer distinctions, with different forms for ‘I took a bite’, ‘I nibbled’, and ‘I kept eating’. Morphological aspect distinctions are usually marked on verbs, but in some languages they can be marked on nominals as well. In some languages, there is a clear separation between the two: tense is expressed in one part of the morphology, and aspect in another. But often a single marker conveys both: a single suffix might mark both past tense and progressive aspect in a sentence meaning ‘I was eating’, for example. A tense distinction may be made only in a particular aspect, and/or a certain aspect distinction marked only in a particular tense. Like other areas of grammar, tense and aspect systems are constantly evolving. The meanings of markers can shift over time, as speakers apply them to new contexts, and as new markers enter the system, taking over some of their functions. Markers can shift for example from aspect to tense, or from derivation to inflection. The gradualness of such developments underlies the cross-linguistic differences we find in tense and aspect categories. There is a rich literature on tense and aspect. As more is learned about the inventories of categories that exist in individual languages and the ways speakers deploy them, theoretical models continue to grow in sophistication.

This paper intends to discuss some fundamental issues regarding tense and aspect in connection with a presentation of the Italian system of morphologically marked distinctions within the categories of tense and aspect; but it is also intended as a basis for studies in the function of tense and aspect in literary narrative (a matter to which I have dedicated the studies mentioned in the list of references). However, my main view is that inscribing presumed textual functions into the general definitions of morphemes (along the lines originally indicated by Benveniste and Weinrich), does not contribute to our understanding of texts, but will rather create obstacles for it. In fact I can see no valid alternative to describing tense in terms of 'time'. As others before me, I divide tenses in two groups on the basis of the distinctive semantic feature [+/-past]; Italian has two simple tenses in each group, and – corresponding to each of the four simple tenses – compound tenses formed with an auxiliary + the perfect participle, and semantically characterized by the fact that they signify a state as a consequence of an anterior state, process or event signified as espectually perfective. Compound tenses are thus morphologically as well as semantically complex: they differ with regard only to the tense and aspect of the 'consequence level' as expressed by the form of the auxiliary. This means that each tense, even the compound ones, are defined without taking into account a 'point of reference' or similar concepts: compound tenses express in themselves temporal location thanks to their auxiliary verb. Such semantic complexity is of particular importance in the case of the present perfect and the past perfect, both of which have two typical uses according to the predominance of the consequence level signified by their auxiliary or to the state/process/event signified by their lexeme (i.e. the past participle). This view entails an almost complete symmetry between these two tenses, and seems apt to solve a series of problems, especially concerning the use of the past perfect, some of which posed by other scholars. It is also confronted with the problems of consecutio temporum. I stress the fact that the basic distinctive features belong to the semantic level, and do not necessarily correspond to extralinguistical evidence in any instance of the use of a certain form. Thus the presumed "imperfective use" of the perfects is seen as an instance of confusion between semantics and extralinguistic reality. In the final part I mention 'figurative use' as the most important factor to create deviance between the semantics of forms and particular instances of temporal reference; I propose a distinction between metonymic and metaphoric uses, corresponding to different degrees of referential deviance from the basic semantic content of the forms.

The aim of this paper is the analysis of some theoretical and descriptive questions connected with the grammatical status of the Spanish tenses ‘copretérito’ (cantaba) and pretérito (canté) with special attention to the use in the contexts of [± temporal delimitation] and to relations between categories of Tense and Aspect. The starting point of the analysis is the research realized by Ilpo Kempas and the distinction between aspectual and temporal approaches in the description of Spanish tenses.