On the Concept of Hijiri (Holy-Man)

Abstract

The original meanings of Hijiri have been clarified to some extent by the descriptions in the opening section. Hijiri as a specifically religious concept came into existence in the middle of the Heian Period, succeeding the formed ubasoku(upasaka)zenji group of the Nara Period65), as represented by Gy6gi-bosatsu66) and En-no-ubasoku67). It was gradually formed on the basis of feelings which were common to both the special religious ascetics who had firm faith and strict practices, including the observance of the Buddhist discipline of forbearance and mercifulness, and the religious hermits who had endeavored to achieve a higher form of religious experience and consciousness in the isolated and secluded mountains or hermitages. Buddhism in the Nara Period made a sharp discrimination between state Buddhism and private or popular Buddhism, because it had developed under the patronage and control of the state. The attitude of the government toward private beliefs and practices was negative