Oil characterization of sardine by-products and effluents from a canning factory: nutritional importance

Aims: Since techniques employed in refining can reduce the fatty acid nutritional value of edible oil, the fatty acid profile of most widely consumed oil brands in Nigeria were comparatively analyzed. Study Design: The fatty acid profile of oil samples were analyzed using gas chromatography. Place and Duration of Study: Department of Biochemistry, Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria between June 2014 and July 2014. Methodology: The fatty acid profile was determined as fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) by gas chromatography equipped with flame ionization detector. Results: Lahda Soya Oil, Grand Pure Soya Oil and Turkey Vegetable Oil presented the healthiest fatty acid profile with polyunsaturated fatty acids making up about 60% of their fatty acids. Power Vegetable Oil had 40% polyunsaturated fatty acid. Mamador Vegetable Oil, Oki Vegetable Oil and Laser Olive Oil had about 20% polyunsaturated fatty acid but as high as 50% monounsaturated fatty acid. Executive Chef Soya bean Oil and Gino Refined Palm Oil had the least healthy fatty acid profile with about 40% saturated fatty acid. Conclusion: The fatty acid profiles of the branded oils were not exactly the same with that of the alleged raw material. The difference may be due to manufacturers’ infidelity or the processing Original Research Article Ajayi and Malachi; JABB, 2(4): 200-207, 2015; Article no.JABB.2015.021 201 techniques employed. Executive Chef “Soya Bean” Oil presented the most obvious perturbation and the least healthy fatty acid profile while Lahda Soya Oil presented the healthiest fatty acid profile.

This experiment aimed to establish the fatty acid profiles of oils from selected insect species and to evaluate their effects on in vitro rumen fermentation and methanogenesis. Insect samples, namely maggots, krotos, superworms, mealworms and crickets, were subjected to oil extraction using hexane in a Soxhlet apparatus. The fatty acid composition of the oils was subsequently determined. The insect oils were added at 5% dry matter to two kinds of diets, high forage (70% forage + 30% concentrate) and high concentrate (30% forage + 70% concentrate), which represented the diets of dairy cows and beef cattle, respectively. These diets, together with a control for each (without any addition of insect oil), were incubated in an in vitro rumen fermentation system, performed for three runs, with each run represented by two incubation units. Therefore, in total 2 × 6 treatments were incubated: the two types of diet (high forage and high concentrate) and the addition (or not) of insect oils (no addition, maggot, kroto, superworm, mealworm and cricket). The data were analysed by using two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by Tukey’s test. The results revealed that maggot oil was dominated by C12:0 (43.1% from total fatty acids), whereas the main fatty acids present in kroto oil were C18:1n-9 (38.8%) and C16:0 (20.8%). Superworm oil, mealworm oil and cricket oil were rich in C16:0 (19.5–31.2%), C18:1n-9 (25.8–44.6%) and C18:2n-6 (24.0–27.9%). In no case was the interaction between substrate and the addition of insect oil significant for any of the parameters. The addition of insect oil reduced the methane emission of the incubated substrates (p < .05) without altering total volatile fatty acid concentration, with mealworm oil resulting in the lowest level of methane among the insect oils. The oils had no significant effect on ruminal ammonia concentration. Generally, the addition of insect oil reduced the dry and organic matter digestibility of the substrates (p < .05). In conclusion, insect oils are rich in medium-chain and monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA), and have the ability to mitigate enteric methane emission. Highlights Oils from various insects, namely maggots, krotos, superworms, mealworms and crickets, were extracted, characterised for their fatty acid profiles, and evaluated for their effects on in vitro rumen fermentation and methanogenesis. Maggot oil was dominated by C12:0, whereas the main fatty acids present in kroto oil were C18:1n-9 and C16:0. Superworm, mealworm and cricket oils were rich in C16:0, C18:1n-9 and C18:2n-6. The addition of all the insect oils reduced methane emissions in the high forage and high concentrate substrates, without altering total volatile fatty acid concentration.

Sir The genus Lavandula is comprised of 39 species and several hybrids of woody perennial plants some of which have long been grown for their essential oil, which is extracted by steam distillation from floral tissue. The major cultivated lavenders are varieties of Lavandula angustifolia Mill. (true lavender) and hybrids between L. angustifolia and L. latifolia Medik., (spike lavender), called L. 9 intermedia Emeric ex Loisel. and commonly known as lavandins. Several species within the genus are popular gardens plants and are also grown for cut and dried flowers, including the above species and additionally L. dentata L., L. stoechas L. and L. pedunculata Mill. Research on this genus has focused largely on taxonomy, essential oil composition and yield, together with research on the biological activity of essential oils; for reviews see [1–3], respectively. Little work has focussed on seed oils of this genus although seed oils from several genera within the family Lamiaceae have been analysed [4]. We are interested in the possibility of extending the range of products from lavenders and therefore examined the oil content and fatty acid profiles of oils extracted from lavender seed (nutlets) of five commonly grown species. Prior to extraction of oil approximately 10 g of seed was dried overnight at 80 C and ground in a coffee grinder. The oil was extracted for 16 h using a Goldfische extraction apparatus and 100 ml of petroleum ether (b.p. 40– 60 C). The mass of the oil was determined gravimetrically after removal of solvent. Results are expressed as a percentage of the seed weight. Oil content is reported as a percentage of the dry weight of the seed. To determine the fatty acid profile 100 mg of oil was mixed with 3 ml of petroleum spirit (b.p. 40–60 C) followed by 0.5 mL of sodium methoxide solution (1.15% w/v sodium in methanol). The sample was mixed for 15 s and allowed stand for 10 min. Bromothymol blue (0.1 ml) of a 0.1% w/v solution in methanol was added followed by 0.4 mL of 1 M hydrochloric acid. Sodium carbonate (0.6 mL) of a 1.5% solution was added and the solution was mixed thoroughly. Distilled water was added to bring the solvent layer to the top and following phase separation the solvent layer was transferred to GC vials. The fatty acid profile was determined by gas chromatography using a SGE BPX70 capillary column (30 m, 0.22 mm, 0.25 lm film) and a flame ionisation detector. The column temperature was programmed at 185 C for 8 min then increased at 10 C/ min to a final temperature of 220 C which was held for 3 min. Total run time was 13.5 min. The injector (split mode) temperature was set at 250 C with a split ratio of 1:50. Detector temperature was 260 C. Data was analysed using Star Workstation Chromatography software (Version 6.20). Oil was extracted and analyzed from seed of three varieties of L. angustifolia. These were ‘‘Hidcote blue’’ (Kings Seeds, Bundaberg, Australia), ‘‘True lavender’’ and ‘‘Munstead’’ (Highsun Express Seeds, Ormiston, Australia). We also extracted and analyzed seed from three sources of L. latifolia. One was purchased from Highsun Express seeds and two came from L. latifolia accessions growing in the lavender germplasm collection at Charles N. A. R. Urwin (&) School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, Charles Sturt University, Locked Bag 588, Wagga Wagga, NSW 2678, Australia e-mail: nurwin@csu.edu.au

Physicochemical characteristics, oxidative stability, pigments, fatty acid profile and antioxidant properties of co-pressed oil from blends of peanuts, flaxseed and black cumin seeds

Diversity in oil content and fatty acid profile in seeds of wild cassava germplasm

Corn oil is considered one of the best edible vegetable oils. Unfortunately, the storage of corn kernels as practiced in rural areas affects the quality of the fat. However, the triple bagging system and aromatic plants remain alternatives to the poor storage practiced by certain players in the ivorian maize sector. However, their influence on the quality of the fat in the grains remains to be elucidated. This study aims to evaluate, during storage, the fatty acid (FA) profile of the oil obtained from corn kernels packaged in a triple bagging system with or without the leaves of Lippia multiflora and Hyptis suaveolens. Thus, 6 batches including one control in polypropylene bag, one batch in triple bagging without biopesticides and four batches in triple bagging with variable proportions and/or combination of Lippia multiflora and Hyptis suaveolens (2.5 % and 5 % and a combination 0 to 100 % Lippia) were made up to follow the evolution of the fatty acid (FA) composition of the extracted oils during six observation periods (0 ; 1 ; 4.5 ; 9.5 ; 14.5 and 18 months). The estimated intake and fatty acid contribution were also evaluated after 18 months of storage. The storage time and the type of packaging have a significant influence on the fatty acid profile of oils. During grain storage, the FA profile of the oils obtained from the grains stored in the triple bagging with the biopesticides varied very little. At the end of storage, their average composition was 13.40 % saturated fatty acids (SFA), 31.76 % monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) and 50.45 % polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). On the other hand, at the end of grain storage, the grain oil from the triple bagged batch without biopesticides consists of 16 % SFA, 38.85 % MUFA, and 45.70 % PUFA. The contribution to meeting energy needs is ensured from the consumption of oil from grains stored for 18 months in triple bagging systems associated with biopesticides. Therefore the combination of these aromatic leaves with triple bagging is more advantageous to preserve the FA profile of the grains during storage.

An orchard experiment was conducted during two successive years to evaluate the effectiveness of the foliar application of zinc (Zn) in mineral form (ZnSO4) or chelated with various amino acids (AAC) on the oil content, qualitative indices, and fatty acid profile of olive oil. All Zn sources were applied at a rate of 0.2% during two growth stages; at full bloom (FB) and 15 days after FB. The results showed that Zn, regardless of applied sources, accumulated more Zn in leaves and fruits compared to the control. The effectiveness of Zn‐AAC in increasing leaf and fruit Zn concentration was higher than ZnSO4. In both years, an increase in oil content and concentration of phenolic compounds and chlorophyll in the oil was observed when trees were treated with Zn, although these effects were dependent on the Zn sources. In general, the Zn‐AAC treatments, especially Zn‐methionine (Met), was more effective than ZnSO4. Zn‐AAC treatments increased the L* value and b* intensity, while decreasing the a* value of olive oil compared to the control. However, ZnSO4 had a slight or no significant effect on oil color. The oil fatty acid profile was also affected by Zn. The Zn‐Met and Zn‐Glycine (Gly) were more effective than the other Zn sources in increasing monounsaturated fatty acid, specifically oleic acid of oil in both years, respectively. These results could suggest that the application of Zn‐AAC, especially Zn‐Met and Zn‐Gly, can be considered as a new strategy to improve olive oil quality and quantity in Zn‐deficient soils.

The term oleogustus was recently proposed to describe a sixth basic taste that could guide preference for fatty foods and dishes to an extent. However, experimental data on food preference based on fatty acid (FA) content is scarce. Our aim was to examine the role of FA profile of oils and preparations as well as FA sensory thresholds on the palatability of salty and sweet culinary preparations representative of traditional Spanish Mediterranean cooking. In this study, we used three oils with similar texture and odor profile but different in their FA composition (saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated) and compared subjects in regard to their FA detection threshold and perceived pleasantness and intensity. Our results indicate that whereas saturated FAs cannot be detected at physiological concentrations, individuals can be categorized as tasters and nontasters, according to their sensory threshold to linoleic acid, which is negatively associated with perceived intensity (r = -0.393, P < 0.001) but positively with palatability (r = 0.246, P = 0.018). These differences may be due to a possible response to a fat taste. This sixth taste, or oleogustus. would allow establishing differences in taste intensity/palatability considering the FA profile of the culinary preparations. Given that tasters can detect linoleic and oleic acid at lower concentrations than nontasters, a greater amount of unsaturated FAs in culinary preparations could provoke an unpleasant experience. This finding could be relevant in the context of the culinary sector and to further our understanding of food preference and eating behavior.

Fatty acids have very important biological functions, including as a source of energy and as components of biological membranes. The dietary intake of fatty acids is very important because many degenerative diseases such as cardiovascular diseases are associated with fatty acids. Centaurea belong to the family Asteraceae, and there are more than 500–600 species of this genus worldwide [1]. In Turkey, there are about 179 Centaurea species. Many species of the genus are endemic to Turkey, and the endemism ratio is 61%. [2]. Centaurea species have attractive flowers and have been used in important medicinal applications in many countries. For example, C. drabifolia, C. pulchella, C. depressa, and C. solsititialis are used to treat various ailments such as abscesses, hemorrhoids, and the common cold in Anatolian folk medicine. Previous studies have shown differences in the fatty acid compositions of some Centaurea species, such as C. carduiformis [3], C. patula and C. pulchella [4], C. kotschyi var. persica [5], C. amanicola [6], and C. depressa [7]. In the present study, the fatty acid compositions of six Centaurea species from the Central Anatolia region of Turkey were examined by gas chromatography. The results can be used to determine the usefulness of these plants as new sources of fatty acids. Twenty different fatty acids with chain lengths between C8 to C20 were identified in the total fatty acid content of the studied Centaurea oils (Table 1). Linoleic acid (18:2 6) was the major fatty acid in all the studied Centaurea oils. Among the Centaurea oils, the levels of this fatty acid ranged from 29.15% in C. virgata to 55.27% in C. kotschyi var. kotschyi. Generally, oleic (18:1 9), palmitic (16:0), and -linolenic acid (18:3 3) were the other predominant fatty acids in the studied species. Similar results have been obtained for some other Centaurea species, including C. balsamita and C. patula [3, 4]. PUFAs are beneficial for decreasing LDL levels and aiding brain development [8]. Therefore, the content of PUFAs is an important indicator of the nutritional value of an oil. PUFAs accounted for 43.90% of the total fatty acids in C. triumfettii and 60.52% in C. kotschyi var. kotschyi oils (Table 1). Among the PUFAs, linoleic and -linolenic acid are called essential fatty acids because they are not synthesized in the human body. The studied Centaurea species are a source of essential fatty acids, and their high essential fatty acids contents could make the Centaurea oils important for a variety of health applications. The -linolenic acid (18:3 3) content of C. pterocaula oil was 16.57%, and -linolenic acid (18:3 6) was found in small quantities in all the Centaurea species. The results of the present study agree with earlier studies in that linoleic and -linolenic acid were major PUFAs in Asteraceae or Centaurea species [3, 9]. Oleic acid is the main monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) in numerous plant oils, and because it is beneficial for decreasing LDL levels, it is a good fatty acid for consumption [10]. Oleic acid was identified as the major component of the MUFAs in all of the studied Centaurea species. The content of this fatty acid varied between 7.98% in C. solsititialis subsp. solsititialis and 28.47% in C. triumfettii. Other MUFAs present at high levels in the Centaurea oils were palmitoleic (16:1 7), myristoleic (14:1 5), pentadecenoic (15:1 6), heptadecenoic (17:1 8), and eicosenoic (20:1 9) acids. The fatty acid profiles obtained for the Centaurea oils in the present study agree with those from a previous study that found high levels of oleic acid [7]. SFAs are unhealthy because they increase the cholesterol level, and consumption of these fatty acids should be reduced for human health [11]. In the present study, SFAs accounted for 16.85% and 39.79% of the total fatty acids in the Centaurea oils. Palmitic acid was the major SFA, and its content varied from 11.89% in C. urvillei subsp. urvillei to 28.41% in C. virgata.

Coconut oil, the main product of coconut fruit, is the richest source of glycerol and lauric acid and hence is called lauric oil. This paper reports the fatty acid profile of oil from 60 Talls, 14 Dwarfs, and 34 hybrids. These include collections from 13 countries covering a large coconut-growing area of the world, apart from the indigenous ones. Capillary gas chromatography analysis of oil indicated a wider variation for the fatty acid profile than earlier reported. Apart from this, for the first time other fatty acids such as behenic and lignoceric acids were detected. Oil from cultivars and hybrids of coconut has significantly differed, particularly for commercially important fatty acids such as lauric acid and unsaturated fatty acids. However, coconut oil seems to have a conserved fatty acid profile, mainly because of low unsaturated fatty acids, indicating the possibility of grouping cultivars on the basis of their fatty acid profiles. The cluster analysis based on fatty acid profile indicated grouping together of geographically and typically closely related cultivars. Cultivars with high concentrations of specific fatty acids can be of potential use for industrial exploitation, whereas those with high concentrations of short- and medium-chain fatty acids and unsaturated fatty acids are more suitable for human consumption. Cultivars and hybrids with high and low values for each of the fatty acids are also identified.

A new Spanish peanut variety that packs high levels of healthful oleic acid has been released by USDA scientists and university cooperators. Called OLé, the new variety promises to provide producers and consumers with a peanut that has disease resistance, longer shelf life, and heart-healthy qualities. Research biologist Kelly Chamberlin with the USDA-ARS in Stillwater, OK and collaborators at Oklahoma State University developed OLé, which will be available for commercial production in 2015. The variety's disease resistance, field performance, and other characteristics are described in the May 2015 issue of the Journal of Plant Registrations. The fatty acid composition of peanut seed has grown more important over time as people have realized that high levels of oleic acids slow the development of rancidity (i.e., improve shelf life) and boost peanut flavor. In the meantime, consumers are increasingly attracted to food products with high levels of these fatty acids, which are considered good for the heart. For these and other reasons, the peanut industry now prefers high-oleic peanuts, and most of the peanuts grown in the southwestern United States are today high-oleic types. Plus peanut seed of the Spanish market-type—commonly eaten in candies and mixed-nut products—is in high demand. According to Chamberlin, OLé is an important variety that will have a lot of impact on the peanut industry as a whole. Besides its potential for high yield and grade, OLé has resistance to Sclerotinia blight, a fungal disease that can cause yield loss and is a particular problem for peanut growers in Oklahoma, Texas, and the Virginia–North Carolina region. Depending upon the severity of infestation, yield losses due to such soil-borne diseases may be as high as 50%. Sustainable peanut production in the U.S. Southwest demands that cultivars grown there possess certain characteristics, including a high-oleic/linoleic acid ratio, which increases peanut product shelf life, and resistance to multiple diseases, Chamberlin says. In tests at three locations in Oklahoma, she and her colleagues found that growing OLé reduced Sclerotinia blight infestation compared with OLin—the first high-oleic Spanish peanut cultivar, released in 2002. For example, in high-disease, unmanaged plots in 2009 to 2011, OLé's incidence of Sclerotinia blight was just 3.7% compared with 11% for OLin. Overall, field performance data suggest that growing OLé instead of OLin could save growers approximately $100 per acre in fungicide costs for Sclerotinia blight alone, Chamberlin says. OLé also has good pod rot resistance and produces higher peanut yields than OLin. The OLé variety is now being grown for foundation seed before being made available commercially. Adapted from Chamberlin, K.D., R.S. Bennett, J.P. Damicone, C.B. Godsey, H.A. Melouk, and K.Keim. 2015. Registration of ‘OLé’ peanut. J. Plant Reg. 9:154–158. View the full article online at https://doi.org/10.3198/jpr2014.10.0072crc

Decreasing saturated fatty acids and increasing monounsaturated fatty acids are desirable to improve oil for food. Seed oil content and fatty acid composition are affected by genotype and environment. Therefore, we systematically analyzed the agronomic traits and fatty acid metabolic profiling of Brassica napus (B. napus) seeds at different developmental stages in high level of oleic acid (HOA), medium level of oleic acid (MOA), and low level of oleic acid (LOA) B. napus cultivars, both sown in winter and summer. The results showed that all winter-sown cultivars produced 20% more seed yield than the summer-sown crop. The longer growing period of winter-sown B. napus resulted in higher biomass production. However, the fatty acid metabolism of individual cultivars was different between winter-sown rape (WAT) and summer-sown rape (SAT). The absolute fatty acid content of LOA and MOA cultivars in WAT were significantly higher than that in SAT, but that of HOA was opposite. Importantly, the levels of monounsaturated fatty acids (18:1; 20:1) in SAT were far more than those in WAT. These data indicate the quality of oil from the HOA in SAT is more suitable for human consumption than that in WAT.

The use of modern methods for assessing the genotypic diversity of breeding material is effective in crop improvement. Interpretation of the results of a study of the fatty acid biochemical composition in seeds of hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) accessions is one of important stages in breeding oilseed varieties, since hemp possesses a unique fatty acid composition (FAC) among other oilseed crops in Russia. Studies of regularities in formation of seed oil FAC and the principal component analysis (PCA) of fatty acid contents have scientific significance and practical value for ensuring the acceleration of oilseed variety breeding aimed at improving quality and biological activity of oil. The use of PCA can be an effective in achieving this goal. The fatty acid profile of oil has been evaluated at the N.I. Vavilov Institute of Plant Genetic Resources in 25 hemp accessions from the VIR hemp collection. Local and industrial hemp varieties and breeding material of the Middle Russian ecotype were grown in Penza Province with a temperate continental climate on meadow-black soils of the Middle Volga Region of Russia. The seed oil FAC was studied using gas-liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry on an Agilent 6850 chromatograph. The results were processed using the UniChrom and AMDIS software. High content of omega-3 stearidonic fatty acid was found in accessions k-205 from Ukraine (1.23%) and k-168 from Russia (0.87%); that of α-linolenic acid in k-168 from Russia (0.82%) and k-224 from GDR (0.39%); of linoleic acid in k-154 (67.29%), k-360 (66.24%), and k-150 (64.58%) (all three from Russia); of γ-linolenic acid in k-88 from Russia (2.43%) and k-211 from GDR (1.92%). It has been established that the formation of hemp seed oil FAC is a multifactorial process. The main factor determined 27.8% of the variability. The presence of both positive and negative factor loadings was revealed. The highest factor loading for the variance of a complex of characters of the oil FAC is on the main factor, i.e. linoleic acid (+0.73). In relation to this acid, negative loadings were detected for myristic acid (−0.81), lauric acid (−0.78), palmitoleic acid (−0.72), and oleic acid (−0.72). The content of bioactive omega-6 diunsaturated linoleic acid was negatively associated with the content of omega-9 monounsaturated oleic acid, as well as with the content of polyunsaturated omega-6 γ-linolenic, omega-3 stearidonic, and omega-3 α-linoleic acids. The obtained information can be used for identifying accessions with the optimal FAC for their involvement in breeding oilseed hemp varieties.

Sesame is one of the important oilseed crops in the world. Natural genetic variation exists in the sesame germplasm collection. Mining and utilizing the genetic allele variation from the germplasm collection is an important approach for seed quality improvement. The sesame germplasm accession, PI 263470, which has a significantly higher level of oleic acid (54.0%) than the average (39.5%), was identified by screening the entire USDA germplasm collection. The seeds from this accession were planted in a greenhouse. Leaf tissues and seeds were harvested from individual plants. DNA sequencing of the coding region of the fatty acid desaturase gene (FAD2) confirmed that this accession contained a natural mutation of G425A which may correspond to the deduced amino acid substitution of R142H leading to the high level of oleic acid, but it was a mixed accession with three genotypes (G/G, G/A, and A/A at the position). The genotype with A/A was selected and self-crossed for three generations. The purified seeds were used for EMS-induced mutagenesis to further enhance the level of oleic acid. A total of 635 M2 plants were generated from mutagenesis. Some mutant plants had significant morphological changes including leafy flat stems and others. M3 seeds were used for fatty acid composition analysis by gas chromatography (GC). Several mutant lines were identified with high oleic acid (70%). Six M3 mutant lines plus one control line were advanced to M7 or M8 generations. Their high oleate traits from M7 or M8 seeds harvested from M6 or M7 plants were further confirmed. The level of oleic acid from one mutant line (M7 915-2) was over 75%. The coding region of FAD2 was sequenced from these six mutants, but no mutation was identified. Additional loci may contribute to the high level of oleic acid. The mutants identified in this study can be used as breeding materials for sesame improvement and as genetic materials for forward genetic studies.

Comparison of the fatty acid compositions in intraepithelial and infiltrating lesions of the cervix: part II, free fatty acid profiles