Offshore Energy Island for Sustainable Water Desalination—Case Study of KSA

A high-resolution assessment of wind and wave energy potentials in the Red Sea

The demand for renewable energy sources is increasing rapidly due to the increase in energy demand, the possible decline of fossil fuels in the coming years, climate change and environmental pollution. Several studies have been carried out on the potential of wave energy and many wave-energy converters (WECs) have been developed. Although there is potential for wave energy in Turkey, wave energy is hardly exploited. The main purpose of this study was to determine the most appropriate site and converter type for a wave-energy power plant planned to be built in Turkey. For this purpose, a two-phased multi-criteria decision making (MCDM) structure is constructed. Analytic network process (ANP) and fuzzy technique for order preference by similar to ideal solution (Topsis) are selected as MCDM methods. Five cities located on the Black Sea coast that have high wave-energy potential are selected as alternatives for the installation site of the wave-energy power plant. In the first phase, Sinop is determined by ANP as the most suitable site for a wave-energy power plant. In the second phase, the most suitable of the five alternative WECs, to be installed at Sinop, is determined by fuzzy Topsis to be Oyster.

Wave energy resource assessment for Red Sea

The vast diversity of wave energy conversion systems (WECSs) in the literature makes selecting the suitable WECS for wave energy harvest a stubborn process. This work summarizes six of the most widely adopted WECSs used heavily in previous research assessments and practical projects. This includes the Archimedes Wave Swing (AWS), the Wave Dragon (WD), Pelamis Wave Power (PWP), Aquabouy (AB), the Oyster, and the Oscillating Water Column (OWC). The work includes the mathematical modeling of these WECSs and the different projects and prototypes that involve these WECSs. Moreover, the latest research development in each of these WECSs is presented. Also, the wave energy potential in the world is discussed. Besides, the wave energy potential in Egypt, including that of the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, is discussed in detail. Furthermore, the steps required to perform a future feasibility study in Egypt and suggestions for the enhancement of an older study are provided. Finally, some suggestions and required equations are presented to explore the site power density and the most suitable WECS to be utilized in Egypt.

The South China Sea is a major shipping hub between the West Pacific and Indian Oceans. In this region, the demand for energy is enormous, both for residents’ daily lives and for economic development. Wave energy and wind energy are two major clean and low-cost ocean sources of renewable energy. The reasonable development and utilization of these energy sources can provide a stable energy supply for coastal cities and remote islands of China. Before wave energy and wind energy development, however, we must assess the potential of each of these sources. Based on high-resolution and high-accuracy wave field data and wind field data obtained by ERA-Interim reanalysis for the recent 38-year period from 1979–2016, the joint development potential of wave energy and wind energy was assessed in detail for offshore and nearshore areas in the South China Sea. Based on potential installed capacity, the results revealed three promising areas for the joint development of nearshore wave energy and wind energy, including the Taiwan Strait, Luzon Strait and the sea southeast of the Indo-China Peninsula. For these three dominant areas (key stations), the directionality of wave energy and wind energy propagation were good in various seasons; the dominant wave conditions and the dominant wind conditions were the same, which is advantageous for the joint development of wave and wind energy. Existing well-known wave energy converters (WECs) are not suitable for wave energy development in the areas of interest. Therefore, we must consider the distributions of wave conditions and develop more suitable WECs for these areas. The economic and environmental benefits of the joint development of wave and wind energy are high in these promising areas. The results described in this paper can provide references for the joint development of wave and wind energy in the South China Sea.

Wave energy resource assessment along the Algerian coast based on 39-year wave hindcast

Marine energy technologies harness the renewable power of sea waves and tides to generate clean electricity. This paper reviews tidal, wave, solar, and wind energy technologies, compares their economics and sustainability, and examines the prospects and challenges of marine energy in Saudi Arabia. With immense coastlines along the Red Sea and Persian Gulf, Saudi Arabia has abundant tidal and wave energy potential. However, realization of this potential faces challenges including high infrastructure costs, impacts on marine ecosystems, and the need for supportive policies and grid integration. With strategic government support for technology innovation, infrastructure development, and policy incentives, Saudi Arabia can utilize its marine energy resources to diversify its energy mix and progress towards its renewable energy goals.

Space technology advancements have enabled the acquisition of marine data that support the research on wave energy as an alternative to reduce fossil fuel dependency and mitigate climate change. Malaysia's ocean renewable energy potential lacks attention from local authorities due to insufficient in-situ data, posing challenges in investigating ocean characteristics, such as wave heights. This study investigated Malaysia's wave energy potential using extensive significant wave height data from multiple altimetry missions. The former assessed site suitability using the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) multicriteria analysis, incorporating marine constraints, namely socioeconomic, physical, and environmental factors. The multicriteria findings were integrated into a Geographical Information System (GIS) to improve the site suitability analysis and generate a localized suitability index for wave energy. Validation of satellite altimeter data with in-situ measurements showed a strong correlation and low RMSE. AHP analysis indicated good consistency in the criteria analysis, with a consistency ratio of 0.045, which falls below the limit of 0.1. The coastal and offshore regions of the Malaysian seas are suitable for harnessing wave energy with energy ranges up to 4.21 kW/m. Therefore, this study provides valuable information to stakeholders and the government to increase their interest in wave energy.

Manganese or ferro-manganese mineralizations occur along the western Red Sea coastal zone and Sinai, Egypt. Their occurrence and distribution patterns are closely associated with the Red Sea rifting. The Halaib area and Wadi Araba in the Eastern Desert, and Sharm El Sheikh and Um Zariq areas in South Sinai represent the hydrothermal manganese deposits along the Red Sea coast. These deposits occur as veins and fracture filling cutting across the structure of the host rocks (Paleozoic, Miocene and Plio-Pleistocene sedimentary rocks, Precambrian granite and volcanic rocks), indicating the epigenetic origin. The mineral forming associations are typical for hydrothermal Mn deposits. This mineralization is characterized by enrichment in Tl, Mo, Zn, Cu, Sr, Ba, Pb and U. The REE patterns are characterized by negative to no Ce-and negative Eu-anomalies. The high Tl and Mo contents, U/Th ratios and REE patterns provide a firm evidence for a hydrothermal origin, related to Red Sea rifting. The Miocene Mn deposits of the Abu Shaar area on the Red Sea coast are formed by diagenetic replacement of the calcitic materials by Mn-bearing solutions during a marine transgression-regression. Based on petrographic and texture evidence (i.e., graded pisoliths and ooliths accumulation), characteristic mineral-chemical enrichment and geochemical association (low Tl, Zn, U, Th, low REE budget and positive Ce-anomaly) indicate a marine-diagenetic origin.

Environmental characterization and radio-ecological impacts of non-nuclear industries on the Red Sea coast

Long-term analysis of wave power potential in the Black Sea, based on 31-year SWAN simulations

<p>The continuous search for affordable and renewable energy resources is a topic of interest for decades. Many large-scale measuring campaigns have been conducted and various different tools have been developed over the years (both numerical and statistical in nature), in order to locate regions with high wind, wave and solar energy potential. Depending on the energy resource, not all regions are performing equally, as expected. To pinpoint regions with high energy gain requires state-of-the-art tools and unremitting research efforts.</p><p>The objective of the current research effort is the spatio-temporal wave data analysis, originated from satellite data, and sensor buoy data scattered in the Aegean and Ionian Sea, with the use of geostatistical and dynamic downscaling methods, for estimating the wave energy potential for the Hellenic region. The main areas of interest are the Aegean and Ionian islands, with unsustainable energy production.</p><p>WRF model is used to  dynamically downscale coarse global climate model output to provide the regional wind forcing for a 40-year hindcast period on a 3 x 3 km grid over the Aegean and Ionian Seas. The calculated wind forcing is used as a driver for the WAVEWATCH-III wave model to calculate the significant wave height and period in the region and subsequently achieve a high-resolution estimation of the wave energy potential spatial distribution and temporal evolution. Model results have been validated with mooring time series of wave parameters in the Aegean Sea and satellite-based along track Significant Wave Height data available through CMEMS Wave Thematic Assembly Center (CMEMS WAVE TAC). To strengthen the results outcome, a spatio-temporal geostatistical methodology has been introduced to validate the computational results and provide a fast and robust estimation of the wave and energy fields. The results between the two different approaches are compared in order to establish either spatial or temporal correlation patterns.</p><p><strong> </strong><strong>Acknowledgements</strong></p><p>This project has received funding from the Hellenic Foundation for Research and Innovation (HFRI) and the General Secretariat for Research and Technology (GSRT), under grant agreement No [1237].</p>

Energy and electricity demand in Riau Islands is increasing rapidly due to the fast-growing population, urbanization, industrial development, and economic growth. The limitations of energy and electricity in the Riau Islands caused frequent blackouts. To support the high demand for energy and electricity in the Riau Islands, renewable energy is the most suitable alternative energy solution. Renewable energy is not only playing a key role in providing energy but also providing long-term clean and sustainable energy. We investigated the wave energy potential in the Riau Islands Sea in four different consecutive monsoons (North monsoon, East monsoon, South Monsoon and West Monsoon) using ECMWF data during January 2018 to December 2018 with 0.125o x 0.125o and 6 hourly spatial and temporal resolutions. We extracted bathymetry data from NOAA’s database ETOPO1 and forecasting wave characteristics use the SPM (Shore Protection Manual) method. The potential wave energy simulation from significant wave height (Hs) and energy period (Te) was shown in spatial distribution based on different monsoon. Our studies found that the potential wave energy was higher in north monsoon with maximum spatial of wave power density 3.240 – 3.640 kW.m-1. The east monsoon tended to be lower potential wave energy with dominance of wave power density at 0 – 0.127 kW.m-1. Keywords: wave power density, potential wave energy, ECWFM, monsoon

ABSTRACTThe coasts of the Red Sea are attractive for their clear water and are vital for marine activities. However the coasts are under constant threat of petroleum pollution in the form of heavy tar balls, which may result from petroleum activities. Six tar balls samples were studied to assess the pollution and to evaluate the hydrocarbons origin with emphasis on the polyaromatic hydrocarbons separated from the tar balls. The saturates were analyzed using gas chromatography. High-performance liquid chromatography was used to study the polyaromatic hydrocarbon fingerprints. The results obtained indicate the absence of low polyaromatic hydrocarbons.

By the end of 2005 the global installed capacity for desalination of seawater was about 24.5·106 m3/day. The geographical distribution of the desalination plants was as follows: 77 % in the Middle East and North Africa, 10 % in Europe, 7 % in the Americas and 6 % in the Asia-Pacific region. The volume of brine discharged in the Red Sea increased from 6.4 million m3/day (in 1996) to 6.8 million m3/day (in 2008) and is still increasing due to the observed tendency to improve the average recovery ratio from 30 to 50 %. This will make the environmental concerns much more important in the future. There are two main sources of problems, i.e. the concentrate and chemical discharges and the cooling water effluent discharges. The salinity is expected to increase in the long term if larger and larger amounts of desalinated water are removed from the water bodies. A proper solution for the desalination waste brine disposal process requires a good balance between technical constraints (i.e. placing a pipe on the sea-bottom), environmental conditions (i.e., finding an optimum distance from the seashore where high salinity brine should be discharged without significant environmental impact; also, the availability for long run of brine disposal placement should be considered) and as low as possible overall economic costs.Since the potential cumulative impacts of desalination activity on the marine environment is expected to be more significant in case of regional seas, in this chapter we focus on the desalination plants in Red Sea. The objective is to discuss a modeling framework for the environmental-hydraulic design of the outfall system for desalination plants. The chapter presents an interdisciplinary combination of environmental issues with physical processes and discharge modeling. We assess the technical viability of disposal the brine effluent produced by desalination plants into Red Sea coastal regions via submarine pipes.There are several approaches to mitigate the environmental effects of the brine discharges. By tradition, the brine is discharged back to the sea in open channels. Impacts from high salinity may be avoided by pre-dilution of the desalination plant rejected stream with other waste streams, such as power plant cooling water. Impacts from high temperature may be avoided by ensuring heat dissipation from the waste stream to the atmosphere before entering the water body. However, simulations models for the brine plume dispersion from desalination power plants reveal the inadequacy of using surface discharging outfalls in order to brine discharging. Large capacity plants require submerged discharges which ensure a high dilution, reducing the harmful impacts on the marine environment. Mixing and dispersal of the discharge plume can be enhanced by installing a diffuser system, and by locating the discharge in a favorable oceanographic site which dissipates the heat and salinity load quickly.The central concept of the brine disposal by submerged pipes is the available head at the discharge point. Higher values of the available head ensure larger jet dispersion lengths and better conditions for ejected brine dilution. We have shown that the quality of the dilution process is well quantified by the Froude number of the brine discharge jet, whose optimum values range between 20 and 25. Using the Froude number allowed us to find the optimum pipe length and the optimum depth of the discharge point.About half of the Red Sea desalination plants are based on reverse osmosis. The percentage of RO plants is expected to increase, taking into account the lower production costs and the favorable technological evolution. The most representative RO desalination plants around the Red Sea coast are considered both by country and by capacity points of view. In order to provide relevant conclusions for the study reduced capacity desalination plants were selected due to their large number. For not available/existing desalination plants some hypothetic “case studies” were considered.Optimum brine dispersion may be obtained by using underwater pipes for any sort of high capacity and low capacity RO desalination plants operating on the Red Sea coasts. In case of large capacities, a pipe length around lX = 1,000 m allows optimum operation. A pipe length about lX = 500 m is needed for low capacity RO desalination plants.KeywordsFroude NumberReverse OsmosisDischarge PointDesalination PlantPipe LengthThese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.