OCCURRENCE OF WATERFOWL AND SHOREBIRDS IN RICE CULTIVATIONS IN THE NORTHWESTERN REGION OF PARANÁ STATE, BRAZIL

This work aims to examine the spatial pattern of bird species richness at broad landscape-scale and to determine the key factors correlated to this pattern in the mainland of China. We divided the mainland of China was divided into 241 quadrats, 2° latitude by 2° longitude. The number of bird species occurring in each quadrat was counted based on available records. Plant species richness was also measured and net primary productivity estimated for each quadrat. Climatic data of each quadrat were based on 30-year records from 830 county's meteorological stations. The results showed that bird species richness was significantly correlated to most factors examined. Factors of food, water and habitat resources such as plant species richness, primary productivity, annual mean precipitation, and longitude were most significantly related to bird richness in China. Other factors such as monthly mean temperature of January, frost-free period, minimum temperature, annual mean temperature, latitude showed somewhat indirect effects on bird species richness, i.e. specifically, they directly influenced plant richness and productivity, which then influenced bird richness. The maximum bird species richness occurs in the south of Yunnan province close to Yarlung Zangbo Grand Canyon probably in response to rich food resources, while the minimum plant species richness was found on Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau where food resources and habitats are limited. Based on our results, we suggest that the protection and development of food and habitat resources should be a priority to conserve bird diversity in China.

Artificial wetlands as alternative habitat for a wide range of waterbird species

Abstract. Saini V, Joshi K, Bhatt D, Singh A, Joshi R. 2017. Short Communication: Waterbird species distribution between natural and manmade wetland in Himalayan foothills of Uttarakhand, India. Biodiversitas 18: 334-340. A comparative study on waterbird diversity and abundance was conducted at natural and man-made wetland of District Hardwar from 2010 to 2013. A total of 37 waterbirds belonging to 11 families were recorded of which 14 species were winter migrant in the wetlands of the study area. Among these waterbird species, two species viz. Black-necked Stork, Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus; River Lapwing, Vanellus duvaucelii were near threatened (IUCN status Ver. 2013.1.) and two species namely Woolly-necked Stork, Ciconia episcopus; and Marbled Duck, Marmaronetta angustirostris were Vulnerable (IUCN status). The avian species diversity and abundance were recorded significantly high (t = 4.16, p < 0.01) at natural wetland site. It is also observed that vegetation variety and food availability is the responsible causes of waterbird species variation in the natural and manmade wetland. The results of this study suggest that freshwater natural wetland site is more suitable habitat for short and long-distance water migratory birds. This natural wetland should be protected to enhance the abundance and diversity of water migrant community. Keywords: Diversity, man-made wetland, migratory species, natural wetland

AimThe aim of this study was to assess the influence of island area, distance to source pool, latitude, habitat diversity and habitat type on species richness of forest birds in the Andaman islands.LocationThe Andaman islands (India) in the Bay of Bengal.MethodsThe distributions of 47 species of forest birds were surveyed on 45 islands in the Andaman islands across a latitudinal gradient. The size of the island and distance to the nearest large island were assessed on a satellite image of 1 : 250,000 scale. The number and types of habitats and the species richness of birds on each island were recorded during a field survey. The effects of the variables measured on the species richness of forest birds were assessed using regression analyses. The best fit models were selected for interpretation of the results. Separate analyses were conducted with selected islands to eliminate the effects of latitude and to control the effects of area and habitat diversity.ResultsThe number of species of forest birds was strongly influenced by island area and habitat diversity. However the key determinant of species richness was habitat type, particularly the presence of wet forests. Wet forests, either semi‐evergreen or evergreen tropical forests are more common towards the southern islands and are usually restricted to larger islands.Main conclusionsArea, habitat diversity and the presence of wet forests on islands significantly influenced species richness of forest birds. The wet forests maintain the biodiversity of the Andamans and should be regarded as a ‘keystone habitat’. This is probably because wet forests are species rich and also because the Andaman biota has affinities with that of the Malay peninsula where wet forests predominate. Therefore biogeographical history probably plays an important role in influencing biodiversity at a regional scale.

Simple SummaryLandscape context plays an important role in bird species occurrences and abundance. For local biodiversity conservation and restoration, we examined the effects of landscape context on bird communities at different altitude gradients. The result showed: that (1) species richness and abundance at <300 m altitude were highest among the four altitude gradients, and they showed more significant differences than those at other altitude gradients; (2) the species richness of birds was associated with altitude, season and landscape context, as the season is more significance than other explanatory variables; (3) at the landscape level, habitat configuration is more important. The average canopy height and contagion index positively correlated with the species richness and abundance of birds at all four altitude gradients. In particular, the average canopy height is significant at 300–599 m and 600–899 m altitude gradients. The study results can provide a theoretical basis and guidance for future national park conservation and management and ecological restoration in the subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forest regions.Landscape context can reflect the habitat structure and play an important role in bird species occurrences and abundance. For local biodiversity conservation and restoration, we examined the effects of landscape context on bird communities at different altitude gradients. Our study was conducted in four altitude gradients (<300 m, 300–599 m, 600–899 m, 900–1200 m) of subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forest in Wuyishan National Park, China. The bird survey was carried out in 115 transects in spring, summer, autumn and winter. We examined the effects of altitude, season and landscape context. The result showed that (1) species richness and abundance at <300 m altitude were highest among the four altitude gradients, and they showed more significant differences than those at other altitude gradients; (2) the species richness of birds was associated with altitude, season and landscape context, as the season is more significant than other explanatory variables; (3) at the landscape level, habitat configuration is more important. The average canopy height and contagion index positively correlated with the species richness and abundance of birds at all four altitude gradients. In particular, the average canopy height is significant at 300–599 m and 600–899 m altitude gradients. The study results can provide a theoretical basis and guidance for future national park conservation and management and ecological restoration in the subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forest regions.

ABSTRACTAim To understand cross‐taxon spatial congruence patterns of bird and woody plant species richness. In particular, to test the relative roles of functional relationships between birds and woody plants, and the direct and indirect environmental effects on broad‐scale species richness of both groups.Location Kenya.Methods Based on comprehensive range maps of all birds and woody plants (native species &gt; 2.5 m in height) in Kenya, we mapped species richness of both groups. We distinguished species richness of four different avian frugivore guilds (obligate, partial, opportunistic and non‐frugivores) and fleshy‐fruited and non‐fleshy‐fruited woody plants. We used structural equation modelling and spatial regressions to test for effects of functional relationships (resource–consumer interactions and vegetation structural complexity) and environment (climate and habitat heterogeneity) on the richness patterns.Results Path analyses suggested that bird and woody plant species richness are linked via functional relationships, probably driven by vegetation structural complexity rather than trophic interactions. Bird species richness was determined in our models by both environmental variables and the functional relationships with woody plants. Direct environmental effects on woody plant richness differed from those on bird richness, and different avian consumer guilds showed distinct responses to climatic factors when woody plant species richness was included in path models.Main conclusions Our results imply that bird and woody plant diversity are linked at this scale via vegetation structural complexity, and that environmental factors differ in their direct effects on plants and avian trophic guilds. We conclude that climatic factors influence broad‐scale tropical bird species richness in large part indirectly, via effects on plants, rather than only directly as often assumed. This could have important implications for future predictions of animal species richness in response to climate change.

Habitat loss and degradation are recognized as the major contributors to species decline and extinction, and therefore represent a key conservation challenge for biodiversity conservation. Key to the protection of biodiversity is acquisition of ecological knowledge about how anthropogenic forest disturbances affect species and how species respond to emergent landscape characteristics. Furthermore, it is also important to assess how different management approaches and land tenures influence retention of the biota of particular sites and of landscapes. However, this crucial ecological knowledge is yet to be obtained for the threatened lowland landscapes of Nepal. Protected areas cover only a small proportion of forests in lowland Nepal; the majority of forests outside the protected areas (off-reserve) have been managed by the state government. However, in recent years, community forestry programs have been increasingly popular as attempts to protect biodiversity while permitting consumptive forest use by people. It is therefore important to understand effectiveness of different forest management tenures for avifaunal conservation. I compared species richness, abundance, diversity and community composition of birds among sites in community forests, state forests and protected areas. Although sites in protected areas had the greatest richness of birds, community forests and state managed forests had complementary assemblages, supporting species not represented in protected areas. Vegetation characteristics such as large tree density, tree canopy cover and shrub density were also greater in community forests than in state-managed forests. The findings suggest that the community forestry approach appears to improve habitat quality compared to state-managed forests, and therefore can be an alternative tenure type for conservation of off-reserve forests and avifauna in the region. Subsistence forestry practices such as logging, lopping, and grazing are sources of forest disturbance in lowland Nepal. Such activities do not reduce forest area, but change habitat characteristics, potentially affecting biodiversity directly, and through interactions with landscape characteristics. I examined effects of forest use practices on species richness and abundance of forest birds, and whether landscape context such as the extent of forest cover moderates disturbance effects on birds. I found that extraction of forest products reduced forest structural complexity and altered the avifaunal community of a site. At the site level, large tree density, tree canopy cover and shrub density were important habitat characteristics, while the extent of forest cover in the landscape had the greatest influence on richness of birds. The effects of forest disturbance (livestock grazing and logging) intensity on birds depended on the extent of forest in the surrounding landscape, with strongest effects in sites with less surrounding forest. Thus, although site-level vegetation structure is important, maintenance of forest extent in the landscape is also key for avifaunal conservation in the region. Several recent studies have demonstrated that the extent of forest cover and other landscape characteristics significantly influence bird species richness. However, different foraging guilds are likely to respond to landscape characteristics in different ways. Therefore, I examined the strength and magnitude of the relationships between the extent of forest cover and estimated species richness for overall birds and for each foraging guild separately. I found that landscape-level species richness of birds positively related to the extent of forest cover in the landscape. However, the relationship varied among the foraging guilds, with strong effects for foliage-gleaning insectivores and, to a lesser extent, frugivores, but only weak effects for sallying insectivores. The relationship between estimated species richness and the extent of forest cover in the landscape was nonlinear, with species richness decreasing more steeply below about 20-30% forest cover in the landscape. Importantly, I found that the relationship between richness and forest extent varied among foraging guilds and with landscape characteristics. Therefore, generalizing relationships between species richness and the extent of forest across all species could potentially mask important relationships at the functional level. The findings of this thesis have important implications for the conservation of avifauna in multiple-use forest landscapes. Although both site-and landscape-scale forest characteristics have important influences on bird communities, the extent of forest in the landscape both directly and indirectly affects persistence of birds in these landscapes. The extent of forest in the landscape can moderate the effects of subsistence forest use practices on bird assemblages. Therefore, conservation benefits for avifauna can be maximized by maintaining both site-level habitat structures such as large trees, and the extent of forest cover at the landscape-level. This can be achieved with appropriate protection measures through reducing human pressure on forests, and restoration of degraded forest habitats, particularly those that are heavily exploited such the state-managed forests. Thus, management approaches such as community forestry for management of off-reserve forests can potentially complement protected areas and maximize conservation outcomes in the region. Such measures will improve habitat quality and increase the chance of maintaining viable populations of the full complement of avifaunal species in the lowland landscape of Nepal.

Summary 1. With the global loss of natural wetlands, waterbirds have become increasingly dependent on alternative and artificial habitats, but the use of such wetlands by waterbirds is typically opportunistic and little consideration has been given to the potential implications for water treatment or waterbird conservation objectives. 2. Wastewater treatment wetlands are currently of critical importance for certain waterbird species in some parts of the world, and we illustrate this with an example from south‐eastern Australia. Furthermore, we argue that their significance is likely to increase as they offer the most realistic means of treating wastewater in developing countries, where the demand for improved sanitation to lift people out of poverty is intense. 3. There is little scientific evidence to guide the construction of wastewater treatment wetlands with waterbird conservation in mind. 4. The use of wastewater by waterbirds poses health risks for both birds and humans and these risks must be better understood. 5. Synthesis and applications. Wastewater treatment wetlands are not a substitute for natural wetlands and reliance upon them should not compromise wetland conservation efforts. Nonetheless, they are a potentially valuable resource for waterbirds, and research should be directed towards deepening our understanding of their global distribution; food‐web dynamics; methods of deterring or excluding birds when bird or human health may be compromised; the effects of wastewater contaminants and pathogens on birds; and the role of waterbirds in human disease transmission.

How to strive for balance of coastal wind energy development with waterbird conservation in the important coastal wetlands, a case study in the Chongming Islands of East China

The structural heterogeneity of vegetation is a key factor for explaining animal diversity patterns at a local scale. Improvements in airborne light detection and ranging (lidar) technologies have enabled researchers to study forest 3D structure with increasing accuracy. Most structure–animal diversity work has focused on structural metrics derived from lidar returns from canopy and terrain features. Here, we built new lidar structural metrics based on the Leaf Area Density (LAD) at each vegetation height layer, and used these metrics to study how different aspects of forest structural heterogeneity explain variation in bird species richness. Our goals were to test: (1) whether LAD-based metrics better explained bird species richness compared to metrics based on the top of the canopy; and (2) if different aspects of structural heterogeneity had diverse effects on bird richness. We used discrete lidar data together with 61 breeding landbird points provided by the National Ecological Observatory Network at five forest sites of the eastern US. We used the lidar metrics as predictors of bird species richness and analyzed the shape of the response curves against each predictor. Metrics based on LAD measurements had better explanatory power (43% of variance explained) than those based on the variation of canopy heights (32% of variance explained). Dividing the forest plots into smaller grids allowed us to study the within-plot horizontal variation of the vertical heterogeneity, as well as to analyze how the vegetation density is horizontally distributed at each height layer. Bird species richness increased with horizontal heterogeneity, while vertical heterogeneity had negative effects, contrary to previous research. The increasing capabilities of lidar will allow researchers to characterize forest structure with higher detail. Our findings highlight the need for structure–animal diversity studies to incorporate metrics that are able to capture different aspects of forest 3D heterogeneity.

SummaryIn the deserts of the south‐western United States of America, as in many ecoregions around the world, invasion of non‐native plants is modifying the structure and composition of riparian vegetation.Restoration of native plant species frequently proves to be ecologically and economically difficult. In the Muddy River drainage in the Mojave Desert (Nevada, USA), eradication of one the most aggressive invasive plants,Tamarix ramosissima(salt‐cedar), often reduces the structural and compositional diversity of the remaining vegetation. This can have negative effects on native animals, including birds.The objectives of our work were (i) to examine relationships between avian diversity and measures of vegetational diversity (species richness, dominance of non‐native plants and vegetation structure [total vegetation volume]), (ii) to explore the extent to which avian community composition was associated with vegetation composition (floristics) or vegetation structure (physiognomy), and (iii) to consider the potential effects of alternative land management and ecological restoration strategies on the biodiversity of birds and other native fauna in watersheds in the arid south‐western USA.Species richness of all birds and of breeding birds was best modelled by total vegetation volume alone. Neither species richness of plants nor dominance of non‐native plants had a statistically significant effect on species richness, abundance or evenness of birds.Species composition of birds between sites was more similar when floristics was more similar, and vice versa. Species composition of birds was not correlated with physiognomy.Species richness of native birds in the Muddy River drainage appears not to suffer from invasion of non‐native plants, provided that the vegetational community retains sufficient structural diversity.The composition of the bird community is closely related to floristics, and other taxonomic groups may exhibit different responses to vegetation structure and composition. Therefore, explicit strategies for landscape‐scale management, restoration and maximization of native faunal diversity should consider how removal of invasive plants may affect physiognomy and floristics of the vegetational community as a whole.

One of the major determinants of species richness is the amount of energy available, often measured as primary productivity. Heterogeneity of environmental variables has also been found to influence species richness. Predicting species distributions across landscapes and identifying areas that have high species richness, or vulnerable groups of species, is useful for land management. Remotely sensed data may help identify such areas, with the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) providing an estimate of primary productivity. We examined the relationship between maximum productivity (NDVI), heterogeneity of productivity, and species richness of birds and butterflies at multiple spatial scales. We also explored relationships between productivity, functional guilds and residency groups of birds, and vagility classes of butterflies. Positive linear relationships between maximum NDVI and number of functional guilds of birds were found at two spatial scales. We also found positive linear relationships between maximum NDVI and species richness of neotropical migrant birds at two scales. Heterogeneity of NDVI, by contrast, was negatively associated with number of functional guilds of birds and species richness of resident birds. Maximum NDVI was associated with species richness of all butterflies and of the most vagile butterflies. No association was found between heterogeneity of NDVI and species richness of butterflies. In the Great Basin, where high greenness and availability of water correspond to areas of high species richness and maximum NDVI, our results suggest that NDVI can provide a reliable basis for stratifying surveys of biodiversity, by highlighting areas of potentially high biodiversity across large areas. Measures of heterogeneity of NDVI appear to be less useful in explaining species richness.

Use of rice fields as complementary habitats to waterbird species was investigated. Three questions were posed (1) does waterbird richness (defined as number of species), abundance and composition differ between rice fields and natural wetlands; (2) do richness, abundance and composition of waterbird species differ between flooded and drained rice fields in the post-harvest season, and (3) do richness, abundance and composition of waterbird species change in rice fields over the rice cultivation cycle? Eight collections were made in eight rice fields with different hydrological conditions after cultivation (four dry and four flooded) and four natural wetlands. Waterbirds were censused using binoculars and one telescope. A total of 76 waterbird species were observed during the study period (2005–2006): 59 species in rice fields and 70 species in natural wetlands. The richness of waterbirds was higher in natural wetlands than flooded and drained rice fields; however, there was no difference between flooded and drained rice fields. The richness of waterbirds did not change over the rice cultivation cycle. Waterbird abundance was higher in natural wetlands than in flooded and drained rice fields. Natural wetlands showed a seasonal pattern of species composition and abundance different from rice fields. Rice fields are used for an important fraction of the waterbird richness in southern Brazil, acting as habitat complementary for biodiversity, but in lower richness and abundance when compared to natural wetlands. The non-intentional flooding of rice fields did not contribute towards waterbird conservation in southern Brazil.

According to general urban ecological understanding, bird species richness declines in highly urban areas due to the increasing extent of built-up areas, and decreasing proportions of green areas. However, this hypothesis is mainly based on studies conducted in cities located in the Global North and rarely in the Global South. We aimed to assess whether existing conceptual understandings of drivers of bird species richness patterns within cities are similar across different regions, specifically Southern Asia (in the Global South) vs. Western Europe (in the Global North). Using avian occurrence data drawn from GBIF (gbif.org), we estimated resident bird species richness in 943 selected grid cells (each cell corresponding to approximately 1 km2area) distributed in 24 cities, 13 in Southern Asia and 11 in Western Europe. We applied generalised linear mixed models to relate resident bird richness with different explanatory variables of gradients of urbanisation, habitat and climatic factors using the selected grid cells as sampling units. Our results showed that bird richness declined with increasing human built-up and settlement extent (imperviousness) in both regions, but this relationship was stronger in Southern Asia compared to Western Europe. Bird richness also sharply declined in urban areas located far from inland waterbodies, but only in Southern Asia. Our findings suggest that high imperviousness drives bird richness decline, but this process appears to be more pronounced in regions where rapid urbanisation is ongoing. Urban planning integrating green spaces throughout cities is crucial in Southern Asia, as it is in Western Europe, to benefit both people and biodiversity.

The abundance and the presence of common cuckoos Cuculus canorus have been shown to predict species richness of birds across Europe, while there are no such analyses available for other continents where species richness of parasitic cuckoos is larger. Here, we tested whether species richness of birds increased with the number of cuckoo species in two study areas in China and one in Japan. We also tested whether species richness of birds can be predicted by the number of cuckoo individuals. Furthermore, we compared the strength of association between overall bird species richness and species richness of cuckoos, Paridae, Corvidae, and birds of prey. This is the first study demonstrating that cuckoo species richness is more strongly associated with overall bird species richness than richness of species belonging to other families, and rather than occurrence of a single cuckoo species, as already demonstrated for the common cuckoo in Europe. The number of cuckoo species was positively associated with both non‐host and host species richness. We found evidence of the number of cuckoo species being associated with species richness of birds independently of country and year, while abundance of individual cuckoos was not a statistically significant predictor. Furthermore, we showed that richness of host species is strongly positively correlated with overall bird species richness in both countries. This implies that the high species richness of cuckoos in South‐East Asia is a reliable predictor of overall bird species richness.