Numeral classifiers in Mandarin Chinese: lexical or functional?

Word classes (‘parts-of-speech’, ‘syntactic categories’, ‘lexical categories’) are the fundamental building blocks of linguistic expressions in all natural human languages. They have been investigated since antiquity and continue to play a central role in modern linguistics. Today an increasingly important role is assigned to the information that is specified in the lexical entry of a word in the lexicon (including, of course, information about its category membership), both in formal and in functional approaches to grammar. Furthermore, there is a growing awareness that the traditional set of word classes is biased towards the better studied European languages and needs to be revised to accommodate unfamiliar word classes in nonEuropean languages.

To introduce this Special Issue entitled Clausal and Nominal Complements in Monolingual and Bilingual Grammars, we begin by explaining what originally motivated this Special Issue [...]

Mandarin Chinese: A Functional Reference Grammar

A grammar of Umbeyajts as spoken by the Ikojts people of San Dionisio del Mar, Oaxaca, Mexico

Reviewed by: The Turkish nominal phrase in spoken discourse by Christoph Schroeder Alan S. Kaye The Turkish nominal phrase in spoken discourse. By Christoph Schroeder. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 1999. Pp. ix, 226. This book, volume 40 in the well-known Turcologica series edited by Lars Johanson, is the revised version of the author’s 1995 doctoral dissertation. Its eight well-written chapters deal with the nominal phrase in Turkish discourse. Schroeder emphasizes that he is referring to ‘unplanned’ spoken discourse, which he defines as spontaneously evolving (5). The language described is the colloquial Turkish of Istanbul and Ankara. This corpus was meticulously gathered from tape recordings, particularly of Turkish television talk shows and radio interviews—both excellent sources of accurate data, although I am puzzled as to how he can be sure that all the speakers recorded were speaking Istanbul or Ankara dialects. After a preliminary discussion of terms and definitions, the remainder of Ch. 1 focuses on pragmatic operations such as the establishment or re-establishment of a topic (7–18). Ch. 2 is a brief sketch of Turkish grammar, clarifying for the reader some of the basic issues discussed (19–54). One may quibble with the author’s inclusion of, for example, the well-known eight-vowel system, the mention of vowel harmony, etc. (20–21), lexical classes (e.g. nouns and verbs, 22–23), or function words (23). It is interesting to note, however, that word order in Turkish is said to be ‘quite free’ even though it is often considered to be a fairly restricted SOV language (20). This point is reiterated by Jaklin Kornfilt, who notes: ‘Often (but not always), the divergences from the unmarked order have a pragmatic, discourse-oriented function, in that the position immediately preceding the verb is the focus position and the sentence-initial position is topic position’ (‘Turkish and the Turkic languages’ in Bernard Comrie, ed., The world’s major languages, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987:636). Ch. 3, one of the most innovative of the tome’s chapters, examines the use of bir ‘one’ as the indefinite article (55–94). The author considers bir as a ‘pragmatic indefinite article’ following the analysis of others; however, he convincingly corrects the perceptions of his predecessors by adding the viewpoint that ‘it is not the article alone which triggers pragmatic referentiality of a new referent. Sentence constructions and the absence of the pragmatic operation of topic establishment parallel to the introduction of the new referent also do’ (69). One sentence worthy of follow-up, which may contain an indefinite article in its English translation, is beni ağrı sok-tu ‘a bee has stung me/bees have stung me’ (77, fn. 13 [sic]), since this was the only sentence found by the author of an incorporated subject with a transitive verb taking a direct object . (The word ‘bee’ is misspelled and should be arı, and one native speaker from Istanbul I asked rejected the second aforementioned translation giving beni arılar sok-tu for ‘bees have stung me’.) Ch. 4 concerns itself with the so-called numeral classifier tane (95–109). The conclusion is that it is notyet known whether tane is a numeral classifier since ‘we do notknow enough aboutt he pragmatic function of numeral classifiers in other languages’ (109). Since this word has been borrowed from Persian (‘grain’, ‘berry’, etc.), and since it is a numeral classifier in Persian, I agree with Schroeder that it mighthave been borrowed as a lexical item and also as a classifier (98). Expressions such as bir tane adam ‘a/one man’ or üç tane çocuk ‘three children’ (98) were rejected by my native consultant since tane could not occur with human referents in the aforementioned phrases in isolation, i.e. bir adam is the most exact translation for ‘a man’. Ch. 5 deals with subject-verb plural agreement (111–25); Ch. 6 focuses on the third person singular possessive suffix (127–88); Ch. 7 covers postpredicate position (189–99); and Ch. 8 has two concluding remarks (201–7), one of which is that the plural marker -lar in sular yine kesilmiş ‘(all) the water has been cut off again’ contrasts with the lack of it...

Reviewed by: The syntax of Spanish by Karen Zagona Stuart Robinson The syntax of Spanish. By Karen Zagona. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. Pp. 286. ISBN 0521576849. $25. The syntax of Spanish is part of the relatively new series ‘Cambridge syntax guides’. It consists of six chapters. Ch. 1 (1–72) provides a good descriptive overview of Spanish syntax. Ch. 2 (73–117) deals with noun phrases (NPs); it examines their role as arguments and as predicates and analyzes their internal constituent structure. Ch. 3 (118–57) covers the [End Page 825] structure of verb phrases (VPs); it distinguishes between arguments and adjuncts, contrasts direct and indirect objects, and deals with the analysis of ‘unaccusative’ verbs. Ch. 4 (158–201) handles ‘functional categories’: tense, aspect, and negation, and their interaction with auxiliaries and clitics. Ch. 5 (202–40) comes to grips with the language’s flexible constituent order and surveys various attempts to account for this flexibility in terms of pragmatic notions like topic and focus. Finally, Ch. 6 (241–72) deals with different types of movement and the constraints that operate on them. The book downplays dialectal variation and therefore presents Spanish syntax as being fairly uniform despite its wide geographic spread. While this may be controversial, it is nevertheless intentional, judging from the author’s observation that there is in Spanish ‘a rich range of phonological and morphological variations in the grammar, but less variation in the syntax’ (4–5). In the preface, it is claimed that the book assumes no familiarity with current theory. This is true only if current theory is taken to be the latest word on minimalism; though accessible, it would be difficult reading without at least passing familiarity with the principles-and-parameters framework. For example, there is talk of ‘base-generated traces’ (110) a few pages before the concept receives any explanation, and even in the descriptive overview a good deal of generative language is used (for example, talk of functional categories ‘governing’ lexical categories). As is still the case in most of the generative literature, the majority of the example sentences in the book are artificial, and it is not always clear where they originate (presumably with the author in most cases). Better identification of sources would be desirable. Furthermore, the exclusive reliance on invented examples is methodologically questionable, especially for the material covered in Ch. 5, which deals with the analysis of constituent order. All things considered, The syntax of Spanish is a good overview of its subject matter and a welcome addition to a worthwhile series. Stuart Robinson Max Planck Institut für Psycholinguistik Copyright © 2003 Linguistic Society of America

The study examines the status of functional elements in the noun phrase, with special reference to articles, demonstratives and quantifiers. It takes its bearings from generative theories on the structure of the noun phrase, notably Abney's DP analysis. In the course of the discussion theories on lexical and functional categories in the noun phrase are modified. There is also an outline of the acquisition of initial quantifiers in infant speech. Finally, the language acquisition data are drawn upon to make out a case for a minimalist noun phrase structure, accepting only D and Q as (not necessarily universal) functional heads in the noun phrase.

Throughout this book, I have assumed that adpositions (prepositions and postpositions) are not lexical categories, but rather functional categories. As such, they have more in common with determiners, pronouns, Pred, and complementizers than they do with nouns, verbs, and adjectives. It is therefore a good thing that my theory of lexical categories has no natural place for them. While this view of adpositions is far from unprecedented, it runs contrary to the more standard generative treatment, championed by Jackendoff (1977: 31–33), in which adpositions constitute a fourth lexical category, filling out the logical space of possibilities defined by the two binary-valued features +/−N and +/−V. In this appendix, I briefly outline some arguments in favor of classifying adpositions with the functional categories, focusing on evidence from incorporation patterns. I also claim that adpositions create a projection that has neither a referential index nor a theta-role. As a result, PPs do not make good arguments or good predicates, but make excellent modifiers. P can thus be thought of as an adjective-like functional category, much as determiner/pronoun is a noun-like functional category and Pred is a verb-like functional category. The properties I have discussed throughout this book as defining the lexical categories can thus be seen also to provide a partial typology of the functional categories.

This study is concerned with the internal structure of the noun phrase in the spoken form of Modern Persian, The theoretical framework is based essentially on Phrase Structure grammar, and is in the form of a three-level version of the X-bar Convention notation. That is, for every lexical category X, the Phrase Structure grammar is assumed to consist of three hierarchic syntactic categories X', X'', and X''', each of which can be expanded to dominate a head and various modifiers. This thesis consists of five chapters (including the Introduction) and a concluding section. The function of chapter one is to provide some clarification of the subject, the language, and the theoretical framework utilized in this study. The chapter also explains the motivation for the subject studied, as well as the reason for employing a three-level hypothesis of the X-bar Convention for the analyses presented. Chapter two introduces noun phrases and explores the constituents which form them. Each of such constituents is then considered in the chapters that follow. In introducing noun phrases, chapter two also deals with the categorization of noun phrases and their distinguishing features, in particular those associated with definiteness/ indefiniteness. In addition to this, the chapter presents a study on demonstratives. Chapter three begins with a definition of adjectives, showing that a satisfactory definition for these constituents can only be based on four primary characteristics. The question of adjectives in comparative constructions and coordination is also dealt with in this chapter. Chapter four is dedicated to the discussion of quantifiers, These constituents are shown to consist of different types, each of which is distinguished by particular characteristics. Chapter five covers the structure of relative clauses and examines the constituents which form such structures. In addition to this, chapter five investigates the process of pronominalization within relative clauses. Finally, the concluding section consists of a comprehensive set of Phrase Structure rules which are capable of generating all instances of grammatical noun phrases in Modern Persian without the use of transformations.

This book explores the idea that functional categories are the flesh and blood of grammar'. From within the context of the Principles and Parameters framework put forward by Chomsky and others, Jamal Ouhalla develops the argument that much of what we understand by the term grammar and grammatical variation involves functional categories in a crucial way. His main thesis is that most, if not all, of the information which determines the major grammatical processes and relations (movement, agreement, case, etc.) and consequently parametric (or crosslinguistic) variation is associated with functional categories. By identifying parameters with a limited set of lexical properties associated with a well-defined group of functional categories, the book offers a new and highly constrained version of the theory of Lexical Parametrization. Dr Ouhalla begins by identifying a set of lexical properties which distinguish functional categories from substantives, arguing that each of them represents a parameter in its own right. He then goes on to argue on the basis of evidence drawn from a broad range of languages that functional categories, most of which are bound morphemes, behave in important respects like independent syntactic categories, and therefore should be assigned a full categorial status on a par with substantives. The remainder of the book contains detailed discussions of how this conclusion, together with the theory of Lexical Parametrization developed, account naturally for some major typological differences having to do mainly with word order in sentences and noun phrases. Although the various discussions it contains are conducted within the Chomskyan framework, Functional Categories and Parametric Variation is comprehensible to linguists of all theoretical persuasions. It is an original and important contribution to syntactic theory in general.

Teaching grammar has always constituted a major part of language education in curricula around the world. This paper investigates pre-modifiers in noun phrase in English and focuses on their definition and classifications. Pervious scholars have different focuses and give various definitions and classifications of pre-modifiers. Through thoroughly evaluating and comparing of the different theories given by previous grammarians and linguists, this study redefines modifiers from a semantic, formal and syntactical perspective and constructs a new classification based on word classes and classifies pre-modifiers into six categories: 1). adjectival pre-modifiers; 2). nominal pre-modifiers; 3). participle pre-modifiers; 4). genitive pre-modifiers; 5). adverb phrases pre-modifiers; 6). sentences, etc. The implications of this paper may provide new insights in grammar teaching in English classes.

The identification of language markers, referring to both form and content, for common mental health disorders such as major depressive disorder (MDD), can facilitate the development of innovative tools for early recognition and prevention. However, studies in this direction are only at the beginning and are difficult to implement due to linguistic variability and the influence of cultural contexts. This study aims to identify language markers specific to MDD through an automated analysis process based on RO-2015 LIWC (Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count). A sample of 62 medicated patients with MDD and a sample of 43 controls were assessed. Each participant provided language samples that described something that was pleasant for them. (1) Screening tests for MDD (MADRS and DASS-21); (2) Ro-LIWC2015 - Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count - a computerized text analysis software, validated for Romanian Language, that analyzes morphology, syntax and semantics of word use. Depressive patients use different approaches in sentence structure, and communicate in short sentences. This requires multiple use of the punctuation mark period, which implicitly requires directive communication, limited in exchange of ideas. Also, participants from the sample with depression mostly use impersonal pronouns, first person pronoun in plural form - not singular, a limited number of prepositions and an increased number of conjunctions, auxiliary verbs, negations, verbs in the past tense, and much less in the present tense, increased use of words expressing negative affects, anxiety, with limited use of words indicating positive affects. The favorite topics of interest of patients with depression are leisure, time and money. Depressive patients use a significantly different language pattern than people without mood or behavioral disorders, both in form and content. These differences are sometimes associated with years of education and sex, and might also be explained by cultural differences.

This chapter provides a brief overview of some widely debated issues in discussions of the English noun phrase, and illustrates how these issues have been dealt with in different theoretical approaches. After a general characterization of the noun phrase from a pre-theoretical point of view, the chapter proceeds to discuss the internal structure of the noun phrase from a generative, functional, and cognitive perspective. Subsequently, the differences between these approaches are illustrated by addressing two basic notions in the analysis of English noun phrases: headedness (in regular noun phrases, as well as in headless and pseudo-partitive noun phrases) and the distinction between relational and non-relational nouns (and, consequently, between complements and modifiers). In both cases the various types of criteria for analysis are discussed, as well as some problems in applying these criteria.

BOOK NOTICES 213 bring and take are treated, since they are often confused by English speakers, along with a discussion of point of view and choice of prefixes. The book concludes with three appendices supplying full conjugations , additional motion verbs, and additional prefixes; an English-Russian and Russian-English glossary is provided. In his handbook M sets up a variety of lesson techniques , such as completion exercises, translations, and pattern exercises designed for oral drill. For some assignments, the student is asked to focus on morphology , for others on lexical choices, and for still others on morphology and lexical choices at the same time. Many of them may be tailored to individual needs of students. By using up-to-date examples and colloquial language, M's book aims to prepare the intermediate student to use comfortably the everyday Russian heard on the street and in the home. For the growing number of students traveling to Russia to live and study, a good command of motion verbs will contribute much to their communication skills. One of the book's strengths is undoubtedly its basic orientation towards 'getting around', and because of the fundamental difference of this notion for Americans and Russians, every effort has been made throughout the book to include both Russian and American contexts with ample footnotes clarifying ambiguities. One problem for a handbook as comprehensive and communication oriented as this is the inclusion ofcertain idioms with prefixed verbs to the exclusion of others. To make the list of high frequency idioms more extensive would further contribute to the book's 'getting around' orientation but perhaps make the work too unwieldy. Some minor misspellings which I found are quite innocuous (38), while others may confuse the reader, especially those in the Russian -English glossary (133, 136). In sum, this highly-recommended and readable manual provides a reliable tool for exploring Russian grammar. [Helen Serdjuk, University of Pennsylmalist government-binding, relevant aspects of which are outlined in Ch. 1 (1-12). Specifically, M accepts Steven Abney's DP hypothesis, summarized and applied to Spanish in Ch. 2 (13-39). Ch. 2 also presents Abney's distinction between functional and lexical categories and his rationale for taking determiners to be a functional category like INFL and COMP, and it discusses and critiques a variant of the DP hypothesis proposed by Naoki Fukui and Margaret Speas. Chs. 3 (41-68) and 4 (69-96) consider 'demonstratives and definite articles' and 'possessives and genitives' respectively in Spanish, reviewing the literature from a DP perspective. Unfortunately, neither chapterprovides significant support for the main thesis of the book, restated in Ch. 5 (97-98). M points out several Spanish grammatical facts that appear inconvenient for various analyses, but her own analysis offers no clear advantages for handling them, and it is not clear from the discussion that a lot depends on whether determiners are functional or lexical. Facts adduced are largely taken from the cited literature , and readers familiar with Spanish should not expect to learn much about Spanish grammar. Fairly low-level points are made at length, like the fact that the definite article agrees in gender and number with the associated noun (42). Some purported facts are mistaken, like M's claim that ? further restriction on the definite article is that it cannot appear alone, unlike an empty nominal headed by a demonstrative . . . .' (45): the Spanish definite articles (el, la, los, las) are suspiciously similar to a free-standing pronoun (él) or pronominal clitic which attaches to verbs (la, los, las), and a complete account of Spanish determiners should cover the relation between determiners and pronouns, a topic essentially untouched in the work under consideration. The book is well-produced and relatively free of typographical errors, though several pages in Ch. 1 are double-spaced in an apparent effort at padding. [Glenn Ayres, Inter American University ofPuerto Rico, San Germán] Lexical categories in Spanish: The determiner . By Linda M. McManness. Lanham , MD: University Press of America, 1996. Pp. xi, 110. Though it does not identify itself as such, this book is apparently a University of Washington master's thesis. Its title may give the impression that the general issue of lexical categories...

This paper examines the syntax and semantics of noun phrases with numeral quantifiers in Korean. Pointing out the syntactic properties of these noun phrases, I propose their syntactic structure and provide some syntactic motivation for the proposed structure. Also I examine the semantic properties of these noun phrases while pointing out their semantic ambiguities, i.e. cardinal vs. partitive reading of the numeral quantifier. Raising some problems of Y-S Jung (1997)`s analysis, I propose the analysis on the basis of Diesing (1992). Depending on the position of the noun phrases at the LF, they can have different interpretations. Noun phrases and CIPs adjoined to the MP (mood phrase) are mapped to the restrictive clause (R)and the operator (Q), respectively, in the tripartite logical representation. Consequently this gives rise to the presupposition of the existence of the entity denoted by the noun and the partitive reading of the numeral classifier. On the other hand, if the noun phrase with the CIP remains VP internally at the LF, the numeral classifier functions as a cardinality predicate, along with no presupposition of the entity denoted by the noun.