Nonlocal Factors of the Convective Boundary Layer and Its Evening Transition Observed with Fixed and Mobile Ceilometers in the Santiago Valley

This study evaluates the methods of identifying the height zi of the top of the convective boundary layer (CBL) during winter (December and January) over the Great Lakes and nearby land areas using observations taken by the University of Wyoming King Air research aircraft during the Lake-Induced Convection Experiment (1997/98) and Ontario Winter Lake-effect Systems (2013/14) field campaigns. Since CBLs facilitate vertical mixing near the surface, the most direct measurement of zi is that above which the vertical velocity turbulent fluctuations are weak or absent. Thus, we use zi from the turbulence method as the “reference value” to which zi from other methods, based on bulk Richardson number (Rib), liquid water content, and vertical gradients of potential temperature, relative humidity, and water vapor mixing ratio, are compared. The potential temperature gradient method using a threshold value of 0.015 K m−1 for soundings over land and 0.011 K m−1 for soundings over lake provided the estimates of zi that are most consistent with the turbulence method. The Rib threshold-based method, commonly used in numerical simulation studies, underestimated zi. Analyzing the methods’ performance on the averaging window zavg we recommend using zavg = 20 or 50 m for zi estimations for lake-effect boundary layers. The present dataset consists of both cloudy and cloud-free boundary layers, some having decoupled boundary layers above the inversion top. Because cases of decoupled boundary layers appear to be formed by nearby synoptic storms, we recommend use of the more general term, elevated mixed layers. Significance Statement The depth zi of the convective atmospheric boundary layer (CBL) strongly influences precipitation rates during lake-effect snowstorms (LES). However, various zi approximation methods produce significantly different results. This study utilizes extensive concurrently collected observations by project aircraft during two LES field studies [Lake-Induced Convection Experiment (Lake-ICE) and OWLeS] to assess how zi from common estimation methods compare with “reference” zi derived from turbulent fluctuations, a direct measure of CBL mixing. For soundings taken both over land and lake; with cloudy or cloud-free conditions, potential temperature gradient (PTG) methods provided the best agreement with the reference zi. A method commonly employed in numerical simulations performed relatively poorly. Interestingly, the PTG method worked equally well for “coupled” and elevated decoupled CBLs, commonly associated with nearby cyclones.

Turbulent electric current in the marine convective atmospheric boundary layer

Cellular convection embedded in the convective planetary boundary layer surface layer

Abstract. We applied a ground-based vertically-pointing aerosol lidar to investigate the evolution of the instantaneous atmospheric boundary layer depth, its growth rate, associated entrainment processes, and turbulence characteristics. We used lidar measurements with range resolution of 3 m and time resolution of up to 0.033 s obtained in the course of a sunny day (26 June 2004) over an urban valley (central Stuttgart, 48°47' N, 9°12' E, 240 m above sea level). The lidar system uses a wavelength of 1064 nm and has a power-aperture product of 2.1 W m2. Three techniques are examined for determining the instantaneous convective boundary layer (CBL) depth from the high-resolution lidar measurements: the logarithm gradient method, the inflection point method, and the Haar wavelet transform method. The Haar wavelet-based approach is found to be the most robust technique for the automated detection of the CBL depth. Two different regimes of the CBL are discussed in detail: a quasi-stationary CBL in the afternoon and a CBL with rapid growth during morning transition in the presence of dust layers atop. Two different growth rates were found: 3–5 m/min for the growing CBL in the morning and 0.5–2 m/min during the quasi-steady regime. The mean entrainment zone thickness for the quasi-steady CBL was found to be ~75 m while the CBL top during the entire day varied between 0.7 km and 2.3 km. A fast Fourier-transform-based spectral analysis of the instantaneous CBL depth time series gave a spectral exponent value of 1.50±0.04, confirming non-stationary CBL behavior in the morning while for the other regime a value of 1.00±0.06 was obtained indicating a quasi-stationary state of the CBL. Assuming that the spatio-temporal variation of the particle backscatter cross-section of the aerosols in the scattering volume is due to number density fluctuations (negligible hygroscopic growth), the particle backscatter coefficient profiles can be used to investigate boundary layer turbulence since the aerosols act as tracers. We demonstrate that with our lidar measurements, vertical profiles of variance, skewness, and kurtosis of the fluctuations of the particle backscatter coefficient can be determined. The variance spectra at different altitudes inside the quasi-steady CBL showed an f−5/3 dependency. The integral scale varied from 40 to 90 s (depending on height), which was significantly larger than the temporal resolution of the lidar data. Thus, the major part of the inertial subrange was detected and turbulent fluctuations could be resolved. For the quasi-stationary case, negative values of skewness were found inside the CBL while positive values were observed in the entrainment zone near the top of the CBL. For the case of the rapidly growing CBL, the skewness profile showed both positive and negative values even inside the CBL.

A comprehensive observational dataset encompassing the entire temporal evolution of horizontal convective rolls was obtained for the first time. Florida, Illinois, and Kansas measurements from preroll conditions through the development of well-defined rolls to their dissipation were utilized to determine the factors influencing roll evolution. When the buoyancy flux reached a critical value of 35–50 W m−2, the first form of boundary layer convection resolved by radar was rolls. It was noted that two-dimensional convective rolls can evolve in a convective boundary layer in the absence of significant wind speed and shear. In fact, the value of wind speed or shear in itself did not seem to determine when or if rolls would form, although it did influence roll evolution. Well-defined, two-dimensional rolls only occurred while −zi/L, where zi is the convective boundary layer depth and L is the Monin–Obukhov length, was less than ∼25, which is consistent with previous studies. As −zi/L increased throughout the day, either open cellular convection or unorganized boundary layer convection was the dominant clear-air convective mode. If the wind speed was low (mean boundary layer winds <3 m s−1 or 10-m winds <2 m s−1) during roll occurrences, rolls evolved into open cells. Alternatively, if the wind speed throughout the day was relatively high, rolls broke apart into random, unorganized convective elements. These are unprecedented observations of two-dimensional convection evolving into three-dimensional convection over land, which is analogous to laboratory convection where increased thermal forcing can produce a transition from two-dimensional to three-dimensional structures. Finally, the roll orientation was governed primarily by the mean convective boundary layer wind direction.

Abstract. We present the development of the PathfinderTURB algorithm for the analysis of ceilometer backscatter data and the real-time detection of the vertical structure of the planetary boundary layer. Two aerosol layer heights are retrieved by PathfinderTURB: the convective boundary layer (CBL) and the continuous aerosol layer (CAL). PathfinderTURB combines the strengths of gradient- and variance-based methods and addresses the layer attribution problem by adopting a geodesic approach. The algorithm has been applied to 1 year of data measured by two ceilometers of type CHM15k, one operated at the Aerological Observatory of Payerne (491 m a.s.l.) on the Swiss plateau and one at the Kleine Scheidegg (2061 m a.s.l.) in the Swiss Alps. The retrieval of the CBL has been validated at Payerne using two reference methods: (1) manual detections of the CBL height performed by human experts using the ceilometer backscatter data; (2) values of CBL heights calculated using the Richardson's method from co-located radio sounding data. We found average biases as small as 27 m (53 m) with respect to reference method 1 (method 2). Based on the excellent agreement between the two reference methods, PathfinderTURB has been applied to the ceilometer data at the mountainous site of the Kleine Scheidegg for the period September 2014 to November 2015. At this site, the CHM15k is operated in a tilted configuration at 71° zenith angle to probe the atmosphere next to the Sphinx Observatory (3580 m a.s.l.) on the Jungfraujoch (JFJ). The analysis of the retrieved layers led to the following results: the CAL reaches the JFJ 41 % of the time in summer and 21 % of the time in winter for a total of 97 days during the two seasons. The season-averaged daily cycles show that the CBL height reaches the JFJ only during short periods (4 % of the time), but on 20 individual days in summer and never during winter. During summer in particular, the CBL and the CAL modify the air sampled in situ at JFJ, resulting in an unequivocal dependence of the measured absorption coefficient on the height of both layers. This highlights the relevance of retrieving the height of CAL and CBL automatically at the JFJ.

Based on a priori analysis of large-eddy simulations (LESs) of the convective atmospheric boundary layer, improved turbulent mixing and dissipation length scales are proposed for a turbulence kinetic energy (TKE)-based planetary boundary layer (PBL) scheme. The turbulent mixing length incorporates surface similarity and TKE constraints in the surface layer, and makes adjustments for lateral entrainment effects in the mixed layer. The dissipation length is constructed based on balanced TKE budgets accounting for shear, buoyancy, and turbulent mixing. A nongradient term is added to the TKE flux to correct for nonlocal turbulent mixing of TKE. The improved length scales are implemented into a PBL scheme, and are tested with idealized single-column convective boundary layer (CBL) cases. Results exhibit robust applicability across a broad CBL stability range, and are in good agreement with LES benchmark simulations. It is then implemented into a community atmospheric model and further evaluated with 3D real-case simulations. Results of the new scheme are of comparable quality to three other well-established PBL schemes. Comparisons between simulated and radiosonde-observed profiles show favorable performance of the new scheme on a clear day.

The Saharan convective boundary layer structure over large scale surface heterogeneity: A large eddy simulation study

A conceptually simple two‐stream model (TSM) of the convective planetary boundary layer (PBL) provides a surprisingly realistic description of basic boundary layer transport features. The model is empirically fitted to a variety of important passive tracer problems. This model, unlike previous eddy diffusion models of vertical transport, is constructed to have a basic similarity to the underlying physics of transport. One parameterization can describe sources at the top or the bottom boundary or at all points within the domain and thereby may be used in simulations describing chemical or radiative forcings throughout the PBL. The TSM also allows estimates of concentration variations due to sources, chemical processes, and temporal variation in the boundary conditions. However, it is intended for use only in problems in which the relatively exact description of the PBL provided by a large‐eddy model is not practical. The model is likely to be most useful in parameterizing vertical turbulent transfer in the convective boundary layer when the chemical time scale is comparable to or greater than the convective time scale zi/w*, around 15 min. We present one model set of parameters which appears to perform well in a variety of situations. A methodology is available which may be applied to fit the model to a variety of PBL transport situations as accurate tracer measurements or three‐dimensional model data become available.

The turbulence regime in a quasi-stationary, horizontally evolving, and sheared boundary layer with bottom buoyancy forcing has been studied numerically by means of large eddy simulations (LES) in conjunction with its experimental investigation in a laboratory wind tunnel. The atmospheric prototype of the investigated boundary layer is commonly observed in the earth's atmosphere during daytime conditions. In meteorology, a boundary layer of this kind is usually called the convective boundary layer (CBL). The case studied of a horizontally evolving CBL corresponds to the boundary layer flow that develops in a stably or neutrally stratified air mass advected over a heated underlying surface. A characteristic feature of the CBL case studied is the presence of wind shear across the capping temperature inversion (density interface) at the CBL top. This elevated wind shear affects the CBL turbulence structure in combination with the shear and buoyancy sources at the underlying surface. This study has focused on the convective entrainment and the CBL growth dynamics under the combined influence of all mentioned forcings. It has been found that entrainment of momentum across the sheared inversion can accelerate or decelerate the mean flow in the main portion of the CBL depending on the sign of elevated shear. The induced flow convergence/divergence below the inversion leads to local organized ascending/descending motions that considerably modify the CBL growth rate. The turbulence structure throughout the whole CBL is also noticeably affected by these motions. This article was chosen from selected Proceedings of the Eighth European Turbulence Conference (Advances in Turbulence VIII (Barcelona, 27–30 June 2000) (Barcelona: CIMNE) ed C Dopazo. ISBN: 84-89925-65-8).

C learly no other part of the atmosphere is more important to Earth’s ecosystems than its lowest layer, known as the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL). The land surface exchanges heat, mass, and momentum with the free atmosphere through the ABL, and naturally the ABL is affected by orography, land use, external forcing (e.g., radiation), and Earth’s rotation. Environmental changes, whether due to slowly evolving global warming or rapidly dispersing atmospheric releases, permeate through to living organisms via the ABL. During the daytime, the ABL is driven by surface heating [the convective boundary layer (CBL)], whereas radiative cooling near the ground at night leads to the stable boundary layer (SBL). The nocturnal boundary layer (NBL) is the most common manifestation of SBL, with notable exceptions being areas where the urban heat island eliminates the near-surface stable stratification and polar regions where the SBL can persist continuously for days. The SBL breaks down into a CBL during the “morning transition,” and the CBL collapses to an SBL during the “evening transition.” Over the past half century, the progress in understanding the CBL has far outpaced the SBL; the much stronger forcing in the CBL makes measurement and modeling of turbulence therein much easier. Conversely, the SBL encapsulates a unique mix of processes that are generally much weaker (at least in total) and often difficult to measure at their scales of influence (let alone over multiple scales), study in isolation, or parameterize robustly. These processes interact in nonlinear way such that emerging new phenomena overshadow the contributing processes, and direct parameterizations of the former based on an understanding of the latter may not be viable. A greater emphasis is therefore needed on the interactions of SBL processes and the resulting modification of heat, mass, and momentum fluxes. Modeling of commonly sought meteorological and air quality indicators—surface temperature and wind speed/direction, fog, air pollution, and dispersion of chemical, biological, and radiological contaminants—relies heavily on 

Most of the existing theoretical models for statistical characteristics of turbulence in convective boundary layers are based on the similarity theory by Monin and Obukhov [Trudy Geofiz. Inst. Akad. Nauk SSSR 24(151), 163 (1954)], and its further refinements. A number of such models was recently reconsidered and partially compared with available data by Kader and Yaglom [J. Fluid Mech. 212, 637 (1990); Turbulence and Coherent Structures (Kluwer, Dordrecht, 1991), p. 387]. However, in these papers the data related to variances 〈u2〉=σ2u and 〈v2〉=σ2v of horizontal velocity components were not considered at all, and the data on horizontal velocity spectra Eu(k) and Ev(k) were used only for a restricted range of not too small wave numbers k. This is connected with findings by Kaimal et al. [Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 98, 563 (1972)] and Panofsky et al. [Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 11, 355 (1977)], who showed that the Monin–Obukhov theory cannot be applied to velocity variance σ2u and σ2v and to spectra Eu(k) and Ev(k) in energy ranges of wave numbers. It is shown in this paper that a simple generalization of the traditional similarity theory, which takes into account the influence of large-scale organized structures, leads to new models of horizontal velocity variances and spectra, which describe the observed deviations of these characteristics from the predictions based on the Monin–Obukhov theory, and agree satisfactorily with the available data. The application of the same approach to the temperature spectrum and variance explains why the observed deviations of temperature spectrum in convective boundary layers from the Monin–Obukhov similarity does not lead to marked violations of the same similarity as applied to temperature variance 〈t2〉=σ2t.

A method of estimating dissipation rates from a vertically pointing Doppler lidar with high temporal and spatial resolution has been evaluated by comparison with independent measurements derived from a balloon-borne sonic anemometer. This method utilizes the variance of the mean Doppler velocity from a number of sequential samples and requires an estimate of the horizontal wind speed. The noise contribution to the variance can be estimated from the observed signal-to-noise ratio and removed where appropriate. The relative size of the noise variance to the observed variance provides a measure of the confidence in the retrieval. Comparison with in situ dissipation rates derived from the balloon-borne sonic anemometer reveal that this particular Doppler lidar is capable of retrieving dissipation rates over a range of at least three orders of magnitude. This method is most suitable for retrieval of dissipation rates within the convective well-mixed boundary layer where the scales of motion that the Doppler lidar probes remain well within the inertial subrange. Caution must be applied when estimating dissipation rates in more quiescent conditions. For the particular Doppler lidar described here, the selection of suitably short integration times will permit this method to be applicable in such situations but at the expense of accuracy in the Doppler velocity estimates. The two case studies presented here suggest that, with profiles every 4 s, reliable estimates of ε can be derived to within at least an order of magnitude throughout almost all of the lowest 2 km and, in the convective boundary layer, to within 50%. Increasing the integration time for individual profiles to 30 s can improve the accuracy substantially but potentially confines retrievals to within the convective boundary layer. Therefore, optimization of certain instrument parameters may be required for specific implementations.

A large-eddy simulation of a line source in a convective atmospheric boundary layer—I. Dispersion characteristics

A large-eddy simulation of a line source in a convective atmospheric boundary layer—II. Dynamics of a buoyant line source