No más esclavos, sino amigos (cf. Jn 15,14)

Mistyczne implikacje doktryny o miłości Aelreda z Rievaulx

Frequently, philosophers use examples to make their ideas clearer to readers. Later, commentators take these examples and go beyond the philosophers’ original intentions. This doubtless occurs because the example is so well-chosen that it prompts questions or problems that did not concern the example’s originator at the time. While the example may serve its original context well, however, it cannot respond to questions for which it was not devised. This is the case with the famous example of the mother-in-law and daughter-in-law offered by Iris Murdoch as evidence that it is possible to speak of morality even when the transformations of a subject only affect the subject’s inner life. Because Murdoch’s example is so rich, it has served as the starting point for other analyses that address the mother-in-law’s motives and the transformation process she undergoes as her view of the daughterin- law changes. That is the case with the present paper, which sets out to analyse the relationship between painstakingly acquired knowledge of the reality of the other and the loving gaze (LG). Basing my analysis on Murdoch’s example, I will apply my conclusions to an interpretation of the mother-in-law’s transformation process. In this process of inner transformation, virtue is understood as “(...) a just mode of vision and a good quality of consciousness”1, and it appears to be a key element in explaining her change. However, the question that must be asked is whether virtue is the cause behind the transformation of her view of reality or, rather, when her view undergoes change, she then enters into the realm of virtue. In other words, does virtue give rise to LG or does LG lead to virtue?

ABSTRACTThe Samoan Christian theologian Ama'amalele Tofaeono draws on diverse intellectual sources to articulate an ecological theology both distinctively Samoan and self-consciously Oceanic. I examine Tofaeono’s writings through the lens of recent work in linguistic anthropology on repetition and replication. By paying close attention to the ways texts and their original contexts, authorship, and intentions can be brought forward into new contexts, such anthropological work offers a useful perspective on Tofaeono’s theological arguments about creation and salvation. Tofaeono frames creation and salvation as actions that are necessarily ongoing—matters of repetition rather than rupture, a kind of continuity that depends not on fundamental durability but on repeated reengagement. An appreciation of Tofaeono’s articulation of time and repetition can in turn illuminate the anthropological study of social transformation and help develop productive interdisciplinary dialogue between anthropology and theology.

The article aims to examine the behavior of contemporary speech genre theory in the analysis of Pauline epistles. The genre of letters is conceived within its original communicative purpose, limited to sender and receivers, whereas the epistle refers to the letter read outside of its original context, considered as literature. The research corpus is composed of the Corinthian epistles of the New Testament, which are accepted as authored by the Apostle Paul. They are selected due to their shared audience, enabling a comparison of production context aspects in the apostle’s writings over time. Research findings include: letters that acquire new meanings, when transformed into epistles with a broader readership; the epistle genre, despite undergoing significant modifications, remains recognizable to present-day readers due to its macrostructure; the social role and communicative intent of the sender that result in alternating usage of formal and informal language, as well as variations in discourse person.

FORCE OF WORDS AND FIGURES OF SPEECH: THE CRISIS OVER VIRTUS SERMONlS IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY On the Friday after Christmas in 1340 the Arts Faculty at the University ofParis, during the rectorship of Alain de Villa Colis, enacted a statute listing propositions and types of argumentation that should not be used in the schools by any master, bachelor, or scholar under pain of expulsion from the faculty forever.1 Most of the articles in that statute concerned arguments employing the phrase de virtute sermonis , to the effect that propositions taken from authoritative sources should not simply be called false, de virtute sermonis. This statute was identified in the fifteenth-century manuscript of the Chartularium as being directed against Ockhamist errors—a rubric repeated in Denifle's edition of the Chartulary and expanded upon by Michalski, who attempted to link the expression de virtute sermonis to Ockham's theory of language and personal supposition.2 That interpretation was subsequently rejected as highly unlikely by Boehner and Moody, but has been resurrected and defended by Ruprecht Paqué in his book-length study of this statute, and by T. K. Scott.3 1 Chartularium Universitatis Parisiensis, ed. H. Denifle and E. Châtelain, Vol. II (Paris, 1891), 505-07, n. 1042, henceforth cited as CUP. 2 The relevant section of the manuscript of the Chartularium, whose somewhat topical structure was rearranged and added to in Denifle's edition, is Arch. Univ. Paris., Reg. 100 (formerly 94), p. 67, n. 59. C. Michalski, "Le problème de la volonté à Oxford et à Paris au XIVe siècle," in Studia Philosophica 2 (1937), 255-61. 3 Ph. Boehner, "Ockham's Theory of Supposition and the Notion of Truth," Franciscan Studies, 6 (1946), 261-92, reprinted in Collected Articles (St. Bonaventure, N.Y., 1958), 232-67; E. A. Moody, "Ockham, Buridan, and Nicholas of Autrecourt: The Parisian Statutes of 1339 and 1340," Franciscan Studies, 7 (1947), 113-46, reprinted in Studies in Medieval Philosophy, Science, ??8WILLIAM COURTENAY As has been established elsewhere,4 this statute was mislabeled and was not one of the two anti-Ockhamist statutes promulgated in the same period at Paris-one in September of 1339 that is still extant , and one early in 1341 that no longer exists, but which can be partially reconstructed from references to it in the 1341 oaths of the arts faculty and in the Nominalist defense of 1474. Even so, the 1340 statute with which we are here concerned did appear in the midst of a crisis over the degree to which Ockham's writings and views should be used in the schools, and a study of the meaning and function of the phrase de virtute sermonis, particularly in the fourteenth century, may hold some answers for its original context and purpose. As far back as 1946 Boehner attempted to erase many ofthe misunderstandings about the meaning of the expression de virtute sermonis and shed light on Ockham's use of it.5 The persuasiveness of his analysis was handicapped by his need for brevity (it was given as an aside in the context of another article), by a few unfortunate mistakes, and probably by the ad hominem assumption by many that Boehner had a vested interest in freeing Ockham from the taint of heresy. Yet when Boehner's analysis is considered on its own merits, it is essentially correct. It is only insufficient in the degree of attention given to the pre- and post-Ockhamist history of the phrase de virtute sermonis and the limitation of discussing it only in the context of supposition theory, leading to the mistaken inference that the expression de virtute sermonis was equivalent to and interchangeable with proper supposition , as opposed to improper supposition, or ex usu loquendi. I. Meaning and Verbal Sense: the Origins of Virtus Sermonis Although the specific phrase de virtute sermonis is not found, so far as I am aware, before the thirteenth century, the distinction ofwhich and Logic (Berkeley, 1975), 127-60; Ruprecht Paqué, Das Pariser Nominalistenstatut (Berlin, 1970); T. K. Scott, "Nicholas ofAutrecourt, Buridan, and Ockhamism ," Journal of the History of Philosophy, 9 (1971), 15-41. 4 W. J. Courtenay and K. H. Tachau, Ockham...

Ned Kaufman Place, Race, and Story: Essays on the Past and Future of Historic Preservation . New York: Routledge, 2009, xi + 421 pp., 50 b/w illus. $39.95, ISBN 9780415965408 Thomas F. King Our Unprotected Heritage: Whitewashing the Destruction of Our Cultural and Natural Environment . Walnut Creek, Calif.: Left Coast Press, 2009, 200 pp., no illus. $24.95 (paper), ISBN 1598743813 Place, Race, and Story presents essays on historic preservation's past and future that are intellectually provocative, culturally incisive, and politically astute. At its core this book challenges the twentieth-century alliance, or confusion, between the practices of architectural history and historic preservation. That alliance often tended to define historic preservation as a curatorial pursuit, committed to preserving a three-dimensional encyclopedia of the objects of historians’ desire, aesthetically and stylistically considered. This framing of historic preservation drastically narrowed its social and cultural possibilities. Ned Kaufman points the way toward a more relevant, expansive, and vital historic preservation movement; a movement committed to social equity, steeped in ethnography and politics and guided less by the imperatives of architectural history practice and more by sensitivity to the human values manifested in everyday attachments to place. Some historic preservation practitioners have used the criteria and models of architectural history to insulate their work from social claims of various stakeholders and communities. Kaufman argues, “It is hard to understand how separating heritage from society's most pressing concerns can enhance the cause of conservation.” He challenges the tendency of many not-for-profit preservation organizations that allocate “resources to protect a historic site admired by architectural historians” (9) while making no effort to discover and help protect sites that are meaningful to a much broader array of neighborhood and community groups. Kaufman does not stand alone. Retiring in 2010 as president of the National Trust for Historic Preservation, Richard Moe reflected on the field; he wrote, “Historic preservation has evolved into something much more than just saving historic buildings. Today it is about people and the places that they care about—where they live, work, shop, worship, and celebrate. We need historic places to help ground us in our past, but also in our future, as …

Joseph A. Skloot attempts to understand the present by drawing on comparisons with the past – placing contemporary digitization into conversation with early modern printing. Importantly, he observes that the changes brought on by technology have both logistical (access and distribution) and conceptual implications, as they can allow people to think in new ways. He notes that, “in some cases, however, surprisingly, digitization has led to a post-modern reemergence of the features of pre-print, manuscript culture.” Skloot provides a preliminary assessment of the impact of digitization, even as digital technologies continue to develop. He offers a helpful orientation, context, and assessment of concepts such as digital facsimiles search, hyperlink, comparison, vernacularization, canon expansion, and fragmentation. While digitization can help engage more people and even create new canons, it may also change the nature of learning. Decisions made about what to include and make accessible, lead to innovation and perhaps also a lowering of standards and textual knowledge. Sources are translated and used in ways that differ from their original intent or context.

Technology is increasingly being brought into the home care of older people. Digitalization is seen as an enabler for efficient and resource-saving operations. In the use of technology, informed consent is considered an ethical practice and part of a responsible home care service system. The aim of this article is to describe the problem of informed consent in situations where emerging technologies, such as artificial intelligence (AI) and mass data, are used as part of welfare services and home care for older people. The article discusses principles and ways to better integrate informed consent as an ethical practice into a responsible home care service system. A qualitative study was carried out to gather the views of experts in the field of elderly care and ethics. A content analysis of a semi-structured focus group was used to explore perceptions of the changing nature of informed consent. According to our findings, the informed consent model requires updating. The key is to embrace the idea that consent is a living process designed to respect people's autonomous choices and protect them from risk. If the nature of the use of the data collected from individuals changes significantly in the future, the consent should also be updated to reflect this change. This aspect is important because new technologies will change the nature of the collection and use of the data. Mass data collection combines multiple databases so that the resulting data can be used even far from the original purpose or context in which it was collected. Therefore, consent should always be tailored to the context, allowing sufficient time for the person seeking and giving consent to clarify the content of the consent. This process highlights the importance of understanding the agency of the consent giver.

A literary canon remained the core of élite education in Classical Antiquity for centuries, while the discipline of grammar emerged to produce correct texts, explain, and evaluate it. But it was to philosophy that grammarians owed, not merely powerful theories of language’s origins, functions, constituents, and structures, all formulated in a rich meta-language, but the very conception of linguistic phenomena – as constituting a fundamentally rational system – that makes expert or scientific knowledge of them possible. Grammatical interests, whether accounting for (apparent) departures from formal or syntactic regularity, determining both the correct reading of a disputed Homeric verse and the correct rules for such a procedure, or defining the parts of speech in a school primer, of course ousted the original philosophical contexts and purposes: when the Stoic Chrysippus advised using nannies who spoke pure Greek, his aim, probably, was to improve their charges’ souls, not their economic or social prospects.

In this paper, we study the implications of the commonplace assumption that most social media studies make with respect to the nature of message shares (such as retweets) as a predominantly positive interaction. By analyzing two large longitudinal Brazilian Twitter datasets containing 5 years of conversations on two polarizing topics — Politics and Sports, we empirically demonstrate that groups holding antagonistic views can actually retweet each other more often than they retweet other groups. We show that assuming retweets as endorsement interactions can lead to misleading conclusions with respect to the level of antagonism among social communities, and that this apparent paradox is explained in part by the use of retweets to quote the original content creator out of the message's original temporal context, for humor and criticism purposes.

When an oral text moves beyond the boundaries of its original performance context, it encounters an audience lacking in the cultural interpretative skills with which to fully participate in its rhetorical strategies. The text’s original meaning and purpose ultimately remain hidden from new listeners, removed in time and place, who attempt to gain access through what is apparent—its formal qualities. Two anthologies— the tenth-century Exeter Book and the 1952 Folkways Anthology of American Folk Music—can be viewed as documents significant in the presentation of oral texts to a new, second audience. Side by side, these two works demonstrate the impulse of the second audience to collect together the vocal poetics of texts that once existed as individual entities in an attempt to preserve, examine, show, and understand the voices of a significant, lost past.

This book compares a variety of biblical narratives with the stories found in several Northwest Semitic inscriptions from the ancient kingdom of Judah and its contemporary Syro-Palestinian neighbors. In genre, language, and cultural context, these epigraphic stories are closer to biblical narratives than any other ancient Near Eastern narrative corpus. For the first time, Parker analyzes and appreciates these stories as narratives and sets them beside comparable biblical stories. He illuminates the narrative character and techniques of both epigraphic and biblical stories and in many cases reveals their original social context and purpose. In some cases, he is able to shed light on the question of the sources and composition of the larger work in which most of the biblical stories appear, the Deuteronomistic history. Against the claim that the genius of biblical prose narrative derives from the monotheism of the authors, he shows that the presence or absence of a divine role in each type of story is consistent throughout both biblical and epigraphic examples, and that, when present, the role of the deity is essentially the same both inside and outside the Bible, inside and outside Israel.

This chapter seeks to answer the question, with particular reference to the use of authentic texts in self-access language learning. It begins by exploring the role of authentic texts in second and foreign language learning generally, in terms of the relation between language learning and language use. Then it argues against two widespread assumptions: those authentic texts can only benefit learners who have already achieved a relatively advanced level of competence in the target language; and that the ways in which we exploit authentic texts should always correspond closely to their original communicative purpose and context. It is thus important to emphasize that all learning proceeds via interaction, so that the freedoms by which we recognize learner autonomy are always constrained by the learner's dependence on the support and cooperation of others. The last part of the chapter is concerned with the implications of my argument for the use of authentic texts in self-access language learning.

The term communism has long since been seen as largely derogatory, and the system it represents, a failure. Yet where do these notions of communism come from and are they reflective of the original ideals laid out by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels? This paper will look at some of the divergences from Marx’ and Engels’ original intent to the form communism took in eastern Europe’s state-socialism. The analysis remains limited in scope with the intent of offering a rethinking of how the works of Marx’ and Engels’ have been used and how it can still be used today. The issues seen within state-socialism and communism’s bureaucratism should not rob Marxist thought of all legitimacy. Instead, critically contemplating the original context and intent of the Manifesto can offer a renewed appreciation for their groundbreaking and radical work and remove some of the inherent prejudice against anything associated with socialism as being disproven and incompetent. The goal not being the re-establishment of socialism as a dominant force in the world today, but to ensure dialogue around issues do not settle on accepting the capitalist systems as some final form of social organization, but to continue to push for social improvement and equality.

Richard Nickel and Aaron Siskind with John Vinci and Ward Miller. The Complete Architecture of Adler and Sullivan . Chicago: Richard Nickel Committee, 2010, distributed by the University of Chicago Press, 461 pp., 51 color and 758 b/w illus. $95, ISBN 9780966027327 In its depth and breadth of research, elegance and range of images, and quality and size of production, this book may be without precedent in historical studies of American architecture. Its creation involved extraordinary, ongoing collaboration among architects, historians, preservationists, photographers, curators, librarians, foundations, book designers, printers, and other contributors over nearly sixty years since the project’s inception. It has been so long in development that its creation bridges the prevailing midcentury consensus that Sullivan was a forerunner of the modern movement, and the renewed interest of the later twentieth century in his work’s ornamental richness, a view that coincided with the postmodern architectural movement of the 1980s. This book’s store of information will assist with ongoing efforts to preserve and restore Adler and Sullivan’s extant buildings, and it will help to clarify the original architectural context of ornamental fragments from their works that are today housed in various public and private collections. Apart from its rich documentation of Adler and Sullivan’s architecture, this volume’s images highlight how different photographers have presented the work of the architects, as the field of architectural photography evolved in the last century. The book is organized into two complementary sections. The first includes six essays by John Vinci that chronicle the development of Adler and Sullivan’s work together until their partnership ended in 1895, and their subsequent individual careers until Adler’s death in 1900 and Sullivan’s in 1924. These essays are illustrated by black-and-white photographs and some drawings integrated with the text. But each essay is also followed by a series of mostly black-and-white and some color plates that are largely but not exclusively the photographs of Richard Nickel, who began to document Adler and Sullivan’s architecture in 1952 as a student of Aaron Siskind, in a course on architectural photography at the Institute …