New Trends of Fundraising in Christian Worship

Contrary to the assumptions often held by previous scholars, contemporary liturgical scholarship is coming increasingly to realize and emphasize that Christian worship was diverse even in its biblical and apostolic origins, multi- rather than monolinear in its development, and closely related to the several cultural, linguistic, geographical, and theological expressions and orientations of distinct churches throughout the early centuries of Christianity. Apart from some rather broad (but significant) commonalities discerned throughout various churches in antiquity, the traditions of worship during the first three centuries of the common era were rather diverse in content and interpretation, depending upon where individual practices are to be located. Indeed, already in this era, together with the diversity of Christologies, ecclesiologies, and, undoubtedly, liturgical practices encountered in the New Testament itself, the early history of the “tradition” of Christian worship is, simultaneously, the early history of the developing liturgical traditions of several differing Christian communities and language groups: Armenian, Syrian, Greek, Coptic, and Latin, We should not, then, expect to find only one so-called “apostolic” liturgical tradition, practice or theology surviving in this period before the Council of Nicea (325 ce) but, rather, great diversity both within the rites themselves as well as in their theological interpretations. This essay highlights the principal occasions for Christian worship in the first three centuries for which the textual and liturgical evidence is most abundant: Christian initiation, the eucharistic liturgy with its central anaphoral prayer, daily prayer (the liturgy of the hours), and the feasts and seasons of the liturgical year.

There have been a number of periods of reform in Christianity that have caused changes in art and its place in Christian worship and observance. For example, the periods of iconoclasm in the early church and the 12th-century reform movement within western monasticism that caused the formation of the Cistercian Order. ‘Christian art transformed: The Reformation’ argues that the greatest shake-up of the role of Christian images within the realm of Christian observance occurred as a result of the religious reforms in 16th-century Europe. It looks at how these reforms influenced the artists of the day, and the impact those reforms had on the subject matter they chose to depict.

Reviewed by: Introduction to Eastern Christian Liturgies by Stefanos Alexopoulos and Maxwell E. Johnson David M. Friel Stefanos Alexopoulos and Maxwell E. Johnson Introduction to Eastern Christian Liturgies Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press Academic, 2022 Alcuin Club Collections 96 xli + 430 pages. Paperback. $59.95. Assembled by two academics leading in their field, this new volume fills a real void in liturgical scholarship of the Christian East. As the introduction notes (xiii–xiv), other studies of Eastern Christian worship have largely been short, introductory, or limited in scope, and many of them have fallen out of date. This project, by contrast, addresses in detail the full range of liturgies, including the Divine Office, the Eucharist, and the other sacraments. It also draws upon the manifold advancements that have strengthened the field of liturgical scholarship in recent decades. It attends, moreover, to the uniqueness of the Armenian, Byzantine, Coptic, Ethiopian, East Syrian, West Syrian, and Maronite rites, while also emphasizing the essential communion among them. The first substantial introduction to Eastern Christian liturgies in more than half a century, this book continues the line of classic studies that includes the work of Irenée-Henri Dalmais (Eastern Liturgies), Donald Attwater (The Christian Churches of the East), and Alphonse Raes (Introductio in liturgiam orientalem). The introduction serves as an excellent primer on the origin, evolution, and character of the major liturgies of the Christian East. It rightly and proudly asserts that "Christianity originated [End Page 224] as an Eastern religion" (xiv), and it gives the reader an initial taste of what it clearly conveys is a plentiful wellspring. Abundant tables assist with comprehension and visualization, and numerous citations of liturgical texts (translated into English) keep the work well grounded. The general structure of the work, as the authors note (xl), follows the outline employed by Dalmais. Chapter 1 ("Christian Initiation and Reconciliation") surveys the practices and texts of the various Eastern rites, and, where appropriate, it distinguishes the logic of the Eastern rites from that of the Western rites. Punctuated by extraordinarily helpful tables (4–5, 12–13, 26, and 34), the first section of this first chapter argues convincingly that the unity of baptism, post-baptismal chrismation, and first communion in the Eastern traditions has helped them to maintain a more integral approach to initiation than what has developed in the Christian West. The second section of the chapter turns its attention to the practices associated with reconciliation, highlighting the interplay between communal and individual penance and ultimately concluding that "the sacrament of repentance is in crisis in the current practice of Eastern Christian churches" (56). Chapter 2 ("The Eucharistic Liturgies") prioritizes the Byzantine Divine Liturgy in a way that the other chapters do not, undoubtedly because the immensity of the subject does not permit a thoroughgoing study of each of the seven rites. Even still, the chapter begins with short sections that highlight some of the unique aspects of the Eucharistic liturgies proper to each rite. Thereafter, it considers the preliminary rites and liturgy of the word, the pre-anaphoral rites, the anaphoras, the communion and dismissal rites, and the liturgy of the presanctified. The chapter concludes with interesting sections on the consecration and on liturgical commentaries, exploring their meaning within Eastern Eucharistic theology. Chapter 3 ("The Liturgical Year and the Liturgy of the Hours") approaches its topic in two principal sections, each subdivided into sections on the seven rites. Numerous tables and outlines help to make this chapter very readable. The authors [End Page 225] acknowledge that "the current Western rhythm of life that has almost taken over the whole world" (211) poses a challenge for the celebration of the liturgical year and Divine Office among Eastern Christians, particularly in diaspora communities. Nevertheless, these features of the Eastern liturgies contribute both anamnetic and eschatological dimensions to the celebration of the liturgy, encouraging the worshiper to look back in remembrance upon the events of salvation history and to look forward with hope to the kingdom of God. Two sacraments are the focus of Chapter 4 ("Marriage and Holy Orders"). Addressing marriage, the authors begin by noting some of the ways in which marriage differs in the Christian East and West and...

This research paper is an attempt to explore contextual dynamics in the Christian Eucharistic liturgy of Pakistan. The debate about the adoption of indigenous elements in Christian worship is linked to the history of Christian missions in the Indian subcontinent. As a result of this debate, some intentional and unintentional inculturation has been made, especially in the Protestant Churches. However, the production of Sacrosanctum Concilium (Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy) after Vatican II enabled local Catholic clergymen to adopt cultural elements, so that worship rituals may appear natural to the worshipers. For the research semi-structured qualitative interviews were used as a method and eight theologians from both Protestant and Catholic Churches were interviewed. This research concludes that because of the deep influence of western churches on the Pakistani church, local theologians are not able to fully contextualise Christian worship in the context of Pakistan. Consequently, contextualisation is mostly limited to the use of local language in Catholic Churches; however, Protestant Churches are more open to localise their liturgy.

110 ANTIPHON 17.1 (2013) Bruce T. Morrill, S.J. Encountering Christ in the Eucharist: The Paschal Mystery in People, Word, and Sacrament New York: Paulist Press, 2012 v+134 pages. Paperback. $16.95. Among liturgical theologians, it has become de rigueur to speak of the manifold presence of Christ in the Eucharistic liturgy, drawing from Sacrosanctum Concilium, no. 7. Such theologians, rather than seek a deeper understanding of what constitutes Eucharistic presence , tend to employ what might loosely be called “the doctrine of the fourfold presence”—at best, as a corrective to an exclusive focus on the real presence of Christ; at worst, as a way of dismissing the doctrine of transubstantiation in toto. Bruce Morrill’s Encountering Christ in the Eucharist is an important exception to this trend. Locating his understanding of presence in the Paschal Mystery of Jesus Christ, a move that situates him within the domain of the early liturgical movement and Pauline theology, Morrill provides a biblically grounded, patristic, and theologically sophisticated treatment of Sacrosanctum Concilium, no. 7. Christ’s presence in the assembly is unfolded according to the sacramental logic of baptism, of the patristic sacramental seal, a biblical account of covenant, and the interruptive and latent Christological presence manifested in the assembly. The same presence is treated anew in the proclamation of the Scriptures themselves, attentive to the manner in which the liturgical ordering of the lectionary interrupts the human imagination, our own meaning structure, and reveals to us glimpses of the kingdom of God’s advent—what Morrill calls the “paschal imagination.” Morrill develops Christ’s abiding presence in the Eucharist through the union of Word and sacrament, an evaluation of the Trinitarian basis of sacrifice, a Christology of self-gift based in the biblical narrative, an account of Jewish anamnetic prayer forms focusing particularly on the communion sacrifice, and the “eucharistizing” effect of the Eucharistic prayer. Lastly, Morrill acknowledges Christ’s presence in Christian leadership (a term chosen because of its ecumenical nature), building his argument from the priestly and prophetic charism bestowed in baptism, a history of priestly ministry, an ecumenical theology of Eucharistic presidency, and an acknowledgement of other forms of liturgical leadership. 111 BOOK REVIEWS Morrill’s Encountering Christ in the Eucharist, an especially valuable text for parish study groups, ecumenical gatherings on the Eucharist, and undergraduate courses on the sacraments, is an icon of a form of liturgical studies so rarely practiced in the academy. He treats biblical and sacramental theology alongside liturgical history and the social sciences, and through this methodological diversity, engages in a refined evaluation of the manifold presence of Christ. To speak of the fourfold presence of Christ in the Eucharistic liturgy, for Morrill, is only sensible if the theologian attends to the particularities of the act under examination—what it means for a Christian to assemble, to proclaim the Scriptures according to the mind of the Church, to participate in the Eucharistic sacrifice , and to lead liturgical prayer. Such a move, a sign of LouisMarie Chauvet’s influence upon Morrill, may be conceived as an application of Chauvetean sacramental theology in an American context. Likewise, Morrill demonstrates his pastoral sensibility, interspersing narrative throughout the text in a way that elucidates even complex theological concepts. Encountering Christ is a work that only a teacher of undergraduates and liturgical practitioner could pull off. Nonetheless, there are two small lacunae that need to be addressed. First, at several places in the text, Morrill falls into a common, albeit too simplistic narrative regarding liturgical history , namely, that the Second Vatican Council rescued Catholicism from a form of medieval piety through a reclamation of the biblical and patristic approach to liturgy. While undoubtedly the Council did seek to promote a renewal of the liturgical life of the Church through a ressourcement of the biblical and patristic vision, medieval Catholicism also enabled a unique form of participation in the manifold presence of Christ through the sanctoral cycle, liturgical devotions, drama, and other forms of art (see in particular Eamon Duffy, The Stripping of the Altars: Tradition Religion in England 1400–1580, 1992). In fact, Morrill’s attention to particularity in the fourfold presence of Christ may inspire a...

An introduction to the Dionysian treatises should start with The Celestial Hierarchy, for several reasons. Much of the manuscript tradition presents it as the first of the treatises: The Celestial Hierarchy, The Ecclesiastical Hierarchy, The Divine Names, and The Mystical Theology. A case can and will be made for placing the two hierarchical treatises after The Mystical Theology, as in the Paulist Press edition, but this is a structural argument that assumes a familiarity with the corpus, not a pedagogical order for introducing it. Furthermore, The Celestial Hierarchy comes first because in it we immediately encounter crucial facets of the author’s theological method that recur throughout the writings.1 Part I touched upon the concern of Letter 9 for the proper method of interpreting symbols. The author’s interpretive method, essential to the entire enterprise, is pursued in detail in this treatise and in its companion, The Ecclesiastical Hierarchy. In the latter work, on the rites and offices of the church, the author explicitly refers to The Celestial Hierarchy as a book already written (Ecclesiastical Hierarchy 1, 372C, 196), thus indicating the sequential relationship of these two treatises. The first three chapters of The Celestial Hierarchy, as we shall see, introduce both the remainder of that treatise on the angelic beings and also the subsequent one (The Ecclesiastical Hierarchy) on Christian worship. The Celestial Hierarchy also fits well at this point because it continues another topic begun in the Letters. Letter 9 interpreted the biblical mixing bowl (1109B, 285-86) as a symbol for the procession and return of God, a conceptual framework that provides a foundation throughout these writings. This concept of procession and return is encountered explicitly in the first few lines of The Celestial Hierarchy. The gradual explication of these essential Dionysian themes should start, therefore, with this treatise, quite apart from its main subject matter of angels.

In Native Tongues: Catholic Charismatic Renewal and Montana’s Eastern Tribes (1975–Today) Mark Clatterbuck Introduction: Powerful Memories During the summer of 2008, I was in Montana interviewing Native Christians on the Rocky Boy’s Reservation for an oral history project exploring questions of dual religious identities among the Chippewa and Cree tribes. I spoke with a wide variety of Native Christians on the reservation, including Catholics, Pentecostals, Lutherans, Baptists, and independent Evangelicals. During the course of our conversations, stark differences emerged among the various denominational groups when they explained how free—or restricted—they felt to practice traditional tribal religions alongside their Christian worship. There was one element in their divergent narratives, however, that seemed to enjoy nearly universal approval, freely transgressing denominational lines, having affected Catholics, Pentecostals, and Traditionalists alike with equal force and emotional weight. In story after story, these Native Christians spoke effusively about a period of spiritual renewal among Montana’s tribes that shaped their religious lives unlike any other, a span of roughly ten years that many still regard as a spiritual summit against which they measure all subsequent religious experiences in their lives. They were speaking of the Catholic Charismatic Renewal that swept across eastern Montana’s Native communities from 1975 into the early 1980s. The movement was marked by widespread prayer for physical and inner healing, tongues, the experience of “resting in the Spirit” (also “slain in the Spirit”), prophecies, and a powerfully felt sense of spiritual community. The collective religious experience of those years freely crossed sectarian barriers, often bringing Catholics and Pentecostals together in shared worship on reservations where interdenominational rivalries had deep historical roots. The intensity of those events and their enduring imprint on the religious landscape of these reservations today soon led me back to Montana to give more serious attention to the stories of spiritual awakening and healing that animated [End Page 153] the memories and spiritual lives of so many Native Christians who belong, today, to a wide variety of Christian communities. Given both the intensity and scope of this phenomenon among Montana’s Native people, I believe this is a story that deserves a wider audience than it has received to date. It is also a story best told through the voices of those most affected by the pulse of its life flow and the rhythm of its waves. At the same time, it is a story whose telling is accompanied by a growing sense of urgency; several key players of these events—including the Seneca elder and Franciscan sister José Hobday, the Precious Blood priest Father Paul Schaaf, and the Lakota Sioux elder Joe Red Thunder—have recently died as a period of nearly forty years now separates us from the first rumblings of these extraordinary events. In the summer of 2009, I returned to hear and record the stories of many who were near the center of the movement, Native and non-Native alike. The record of their memories forms the basis of what follows.1 There are always many more voices that ought to be included in a project like this. Nevertheless, I’ve tried to assemble a fairly representative gathering of those participants largely responsible for the vitality of the movement on three of Montana’s reservations where the Catholic Charismatic Renewal (CCR) was experienced most poignantly across the state through the 1970s and 1980s: the Fort Belknap Reservation (Gros Ventre and Assiniboine), the Rocky Boy’s Reservation (Chippewa and Cree), and the Crow Reservation. I include the voices of women and men, Natives and non-Natives, lay leaders and clergy, all of whom played key roles in the movement’s impact across these tribal communities. Lighting the Fire: From Devil’s Lake to Wolf Point It began near Devil’s Lake, North Dakota. In the early summer of 1975, a regional Catholic Indian Congress was held at St. Michael’s Mission on the Spirit Lake Tribe Reservation, not far from Fort Totten. During one of the services, the Lakota Sioux elder Joe Red Thunder was unexpectedly asked to pray for a woman suffering from cancer who was standing beside him. Joe’s father had been a Catholic catechist, and Joe...

This chapter explores the movement and recoalescing of eight essential elements into the African Religion Complex (ARC), thus enabling the Hoodoo religion to emerge briefly: counterclockwise sacred circle dancing; spirit possession; the principle of sacrifice; ritual water immersion; divination; ancestor reverence; belief in spiritual cause of malady; and herbal and naturopathic medicine. Something resembling Hoodoo developed among the first generation of culturally diverse Africans born in the North American colonies. Enslaved Africans manifest a range of responses to contact with both slavery and Christian worship. But whenever they worshipped, these children of Africa expressed spiritual emotion in bodily patterns inherited from African traditional religion. The primary African components from which Hoodoo would be constituted were drawn from a range of different African ethnic cultures that stretched from the area now known as Senegal down the West African coast to the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

The study examines how the discovery of crude oil in Nigeria gave birth to the recent phenomena of multinationalisation/internationalisation of business and globalisation which brought together people from different socio-cultural backgrounds to work together in the various workplaces thereby making managing diversity problematic. With the resulting challenges, the paper presents the need for greater attention to be placed on examining the complexities of workplace diversity in the Nigerian workplace and the implication for the future of multinational businesses and their employees in this location. Study Design: This paper relies on descriptive qualitative research methodology and will examine the impact of the influx of foreign workers on the already diverse workforce Place and Duration of Study: Nigeria from 1950's (before the discovery of crude oil) to 1956 (after the discovery of oil) Methods and Methodology: The study relied on secondary sources of data on non-oil exports (cocoa beans, in the South-West, Groundnut in the North and Oil palm in the South East) in the 1950's and the discovery of crude oil in 1956 at Oloibiri. This paper employs a descriptive and historical research methodology through secondary

Every society, in order to have any stability and meaningful development, peace and orderly progress, usually requires that its members adhere to an articulated set of values which provides a sense of group identity for them. For the Igbo, as in many parts of Africa, it is religion, albeit traditional religion, that provides most of the bases for the values and stands them out with a distinctive identity. There is no doubt that the traditional religion on which the Igbo societies were based gave meaning and significance to the lives of people in those societies. But those values have been thoroughly affected by historical factors, by the encounter with Europeans and their Christian religion with its accompanying new systems of living. Howbeit, if a new religion has assumed major significance in the lives of a people, then it is very necessary to assess the nature of its activities and progress in order to establish the genuineness of its predominance and to see how far it has allowed itself or otherwise, to fulfill the requirements which the people demand of their religion. Assessing the impacts of Christianity on Igbo societies, historians inevitably tend to concentrate on manifestations of change, rather than on continuities. However, to understand Igbo society in the missionary era it is essential to understand that for many, perhaps most Igbo, life was not changed very fundamentally. The extent of the Christianization of Igboland is a question of depth and sincerity as well as a question of change and continuity in social identity. The first generation of Igbo Christians often displayed an apparent ambivalence. On the one hand, they were enthusiastic and fervent Christians, but on the other, they frequently embraced practices which the Churches condemned. Nevertheless, this type of eclecticism does not reflect insincerity. On the contrary, it reflected the reality of the supernatural world. This study, therefore, looked at the extent to which missionary enterprise has brought changes in the identity of Igbo people and how the Igbo responded to its new challenges vis-a-vis problems and opportunities. Keywords: society, traditional religion, Igbo societies, missionary era, Howbeit, church, Africa, etc.

The seeming issue of syncretism between Christianity and African traditions had rarely been viewed from an historical research methodology especially between the Benin people of Nigeria and their declaration for Christianity which needs urgent attention. Hence, this study explores the subject matter through cultural interactions between the contemporary travail of the Seventh-day Adventist missionaries’ enterprise and Benin indigenous People. This study employs historical research methods of data collection and collation. Findings reveal that Benin culture impedes the faith of the indigenous people on wholesome biblical faith. This study suggests that it is imperative, among others, for every Christian faith to develop a set of biblical lessons on Bible and traditions as a prerequisite for contemporary Missiological approach and to be studied in various denominations within their host communities to avert the influence of the indigenous traditions over biblical injunctions. Keywords: Culture, Missions, Protestant Faith, Nigeria DOI : 10.7176/JAAS/57-05 Publication date : August 31 st 2019

Intra-state violent conflicts have been on the rise in many states in recent years. Climate change has been negatively affecting available resources in many communities, and this contributes to the spate of unhealthy competitions and violent conflicts in many communities. This is further compounded by the increasing waves of terrorism. Nigeria is not spared of this experience. From North to South, East to West, violent conflicts have negatively impacted on public service delivery and business activities in the world largest community of blacks creating a drawback in the development stride in local communities and society at large. There have been attempts by successive governments to address the violent conflicts, but much of which have been through the use of government security agents, and since violence begets violence, the approach has not really resulted in positive peace required to create the right business clime for the people. Following this, civil society organisations stepped in with a view to filling the gap occasioned by government’s failure to effectively manage the situations. The various civil society organisations explored tools, from traditional religion, Christian religion and modern conflict resolution mechanism to intervene in the conflicts. This paper examined the roles of these organisations in conflict intervention in Nigeria.Key words: Civil society organisations, conflict, intervention, Nigerian experience, implication, public service delivery, business activities

Gendun Chopel: Tibet's First Modern Artist

This paper discusses Islamization of Nigeria and its implications for sustainable peace. Islamization agenda means the articulated methods which Muslims softly or subtly apply to win new members or the programs they aggressively or violently follow in order to conquer or coerce people into the Islamic faith. Missionary enterprise such as Islamization is not a strange phenomenon in all religions. This is because each one makes some efforts to get new converts. In fact, it is a proper and natural activity which characterizes all faiths. Therefore Islamization, Christianization or traditional-religionization shows the noble characteristic inherent in these religions. Nigeria has religious pluralism as one critical expression of her diversity. Christianity, African Traditional Religion and Islam are the three major religions in the country. When the multiplicity of faiths found to exist simultaneously within a place celebrates inclusivity, it shows the beauty of her strength. But if on the contrary, it takes on the features of intolerance, then the necessary consequence becomes religious terrorism. The findings of this paper reveal, among other things, that Islam has multi-dimensional approaches to ensuring that Nigeria becomes an Islamic state. Islamization is a conscious and pious fulfillment of Islamic obligations. It also discovered with some rude shocks that Islam identifies every non-muslim as an infidel who is good only to be wasted by torture and gruesome death. This means that peace is compromised variously in the enterprise of Islamization. The methodology employed in this work is historic-descriptive which means that the schemes of Islamization were carefully studied and interpreted using the multi-variant peace values as frames of reference.

Parsing Early Modernity Jean I. Marsden (bio) While one could ask what's in a name, it is clear that those of us in academia feel that there is a great deal, so much so that we are pondering the meaning of the Early Modern in a journal that uses the term in its title. But what exactly are we arguing over, and what (if any) are the stakes? Why has a designation that is, after all, simply a descriptive term, excited such controversy and even angst? On the surface, the debate over what constitutes the Early Modern appears a turf war between those scholars of what used to be known as the Renaissance and those of the ever-expanding "extended eighteenth century." There is frustration on one side of having a title seemingly snatched away and a sense of entitlement on the other in having deserved that same title. As we all try to grasp the brass ring that is the Early Modern, the question becomes not what the Early Modern "really" is but rather at what point does semantics become substance? More than establishing an easily identifiable field of study, this argument reflects a deep-set concern with how we define ourselves. In choosing to adopt the identifier "early modern," academics seek the opportunity to break from their own past and re-imagine themselves through the mechanism of renaming. For some, it is an attempt to escape from periodization based on convenient century markers such as the eighteenth century (usually with the forty years after the restoration of the English monarchy in 1660 tacked on). For Renaissance scholars, the term represents an opportunity to resist being tied by definition to the past, no matter how much that past was reborn. (The descriptor "Augustan" was discarded for similar reasons.) By the time I began my career, "the Augustan Age," with its connotations of a literary and philosophical era defined by an even more remote age, was rarely used. Instead, scholarship that covered the years between 1660 and 1800 expanded its scope, adding [End Page 69] the word studies to its name and professional organization to indicate the interdisciplinary nature of its subject matter and approach. Two decades ago, a group of academics, myself included, met at the American Society for Eighteenth-Century Studies annual conference and decided to inaugurate a new scholarly entity. We chose the term "Early Modern" for this group specifically to escape from the periodization that we felt had become claustrophobic, hoping at the same time to indicate our rejection of the reification of specific canons of literature, thought, and approach. For us, the term represented an attempt to prevent the past from becoming ossified, to allow for wiggle room in terms of approach and subject matter. The term was left deliberately baggy, to indicate inclusiveness; it represented an ideal of scholarly community rather than a clearly understood period of study. In this sense, "Early Modern" was a term related to a distinct, specific past—our own. As a field of study, by contrast, Early Modernity is neither exact nor knowable. Rather, it is a time and culture that we try to recapture by searching for traces left in texts, art, music; along the way, however, we inevitably leave traces of ourselves so that the Early Modern comes to mirror our own demographics and self perceptions. Thirty or forty years ago, for example, the Early Modern era, wherever we choose to locate it, was largely male and white. Its women were inarticulate, and its non-Caucasian peoples were mute. Today, after decades of recovery work aided most recently by digital resources such as Eighteenth Century Collections Online and Early English Books Online, our vision of the early modern past is more integrated; it is hard to imagine a conference in the field that does not include numerous panels studying the works and worlds of women, and at the very least making a bow toward the existence of a world outside of Western Europe. There are limitations to our effort to reconstruct the past, of course. Slaves and non-European peoples were often not literate—at least not in European languages. Women were circumscribed in their sphere...