New Relativistic Cosmology Based on Principle of Scale Invariance#

Dark matter consist of about 25% of our universe, yet the nature of the dark matter is still unknown. Our current understanding of the cosmology is presented in the theory of?CDM. The theory predicts a cold dark matter (CDM). It is very successful at explaining large-scale structures in the distribution of galaxies and of the cosmic microwave background. However, at small-scale there are controversies. One persistent controversy regards the darkmatter density profi?le at the center of the dwarf galaxy. The theory of CDM predicts a steep profi?le that diverges as r-1, while the observations tend to suggest a flatter pro?file.The resolution of this controversy could provide a milestone in our understanding of the nature of dark matter. This work is intended to contribute to that eff?ort by studyingthe dark matter density profi?les of the dwarf spheroidal galaxies (dSph). Dwarf satellite galaxies around Milky Way are some of the most dark matter dominated system we know, and without active star formation they are excellent laboratories to resolve this dichotomy. This thesis presents new methodology that analyzes data with foreground contamination to create the ?first fully consistent inferences of dSph mass density pro?file. We analyze Fornaxand Sculptor dSph as the fi?rst applications. Direct Bayesian inference is made with the kinematic data of each galaxy, using both Osipkov-Merritt and Strigari Frenk and White(SFW) stellar distribution functions. The result shows that Fornax has enough data to constrain the dark matter central density profi?le. It also shows that depending on theconsistency of modeling foreground contaminants, totally opposite results in central density profi?le can be obtained. That shows the importance and the need for consistent treatment of foreground contaminants in future analysis. For the cases where likelihood calculation becomes intractable, kernel density estimation is applied to sample points to approximate the underlying density. Test inferences show that the approximation can reliably recover dark matter density profi?les. Machine learning methods are also applied to address this challenge. Mixture Density Network (MDN) shows great promise, although improvement in training is needed to narrow down the prediction uncertainty.

The origin of matter and many interesting phenomena occurred during the big bang between the first instants of cosmic expansion time of the surface of photon last scattering. Even so, there are only two means by which to probe the physics of the big bang epoch. One is the observed power spectrum of temperature fluctuations in the cosmic microwave background. This spectrum derives from a combination of physics from the first instants of cosmic inflation, and the physics of matter and radiation at the photon last scattering surface. The other probe is the observed ashes of primordial nucleosynthesis which occurred during the radiation dominated epoch from about 1 sec to 103 sec into the big bang. This paper summarizes these two cosmic probes and their roles in motivating and constraining new cosmological paradigms. Among the topics discussed are the limits which these probes place upon the nature of dark matter and dark energy, along with possible insights into physics beyond the standard model of particle physics.

The Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) consists of photons that were last created about 2 months after the Big Bang, and last scattered about 380,000 years after the Big Bang. The spectrum of the CMB is very close to a blackbody at 2.725 K, and upper limits on any deviations from of the CMB from a blackbody place strong constraints on energy transfer between the CMB and matter at all redshifts less than 2 million. The CMB is very nearly isotropic, but a dipole anisotropy of ±3.346(17) mK shows that the Solar System barycenter is moving at 368 ±2 km/sec relative to the observable Universe. The dipole corresponds to a spherical harmonic index l = 1. The higher indices l≥ 2 indicate intrinsic inhomogeneities in the Universe that existed at the time of last scattering. While the photons have traveled freely only since the time of last scattering, the inhomogeneities traced by the CMB photons have been in place since the in- flationary epoch only 10−35 sec after the Big Bang. These intrinsic anisotropies are much smaller in amplitude than the dipole anisotropy, with ΔT ≤ 100 µK. Electron scattering of the anisotropic radiation field produces an anisotropic linear polarization in the CMB with amplitudes ≤ 5 µK. Detailed studies of the angular power spectrum of the temperature and linear polarization anisotropies have yielded precise values for many cosmological parameters. This paper will discuss the techniques necessary to measure signals that are 100 million times smaller than the emission from the instrument and briefly describe results from experiments up to WMAP.

The discovery of the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) radiation in 1965 is one of the fundamental milestones supporting the Big Bang theory. The CMB is one of the most important source of information in cosmology. The excellent accuracy of the recent CMB data of WMAP and Planck satellites confirmed the validity of the standard cosmological model and set a new challenge for the data analysis processes and their interpretation. In this thesis we deal with several aspects and useful tools of the data analysis. We focus on their optimization in order to have a complete exploitation of the Planck data and contribute to the final published results. The issues investigated are: the change of coordinates of CMB maps using the HEALPix package, the problem of the aliasing effect in the generation of low resolution maps, the comparison of the Angular Power Spectrum (APS) extraction performances of the optimal QML method, implemented in the code called BolPol, and the pseudo-Cl method, implemented in Cromaster. The QML method has been then applied to the Planck data at large angular scales to extract the CMB APS. The same method has been applied also to analyze the TT parity and the Low Variance anomalies in the Planck maps, showing a consistent deviation from the standard cosmological model, the possible origins for this results have been discussed. The Cromaster code instead has been applied to the 408 MHz and 1.42 GHz surveys focusing on the analysis of the APS of selected regions of the synchrotron emission. The new generation of CMB experiments will be dedicated to polarization measurements, for which are necessary high accuracy devices for separating the polarizations. Here a new technology, called Photonic Crystals, is exploited to develop a new polarization splitter device and its performances are compared to the devices used nowadays.

The Big Bang theory, widely accepted by cosmologists, explains the origin, expansion, and eventual fate of the universe. It was further developed by inflation theory, which solves issues like the horizon and flatness problems. This theory states that the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB), a remnant of the Big Bang, permeates the entire universe. Cosmologists believe these photons were emitted during the recombination epoch, approximately 380,000 years after the Big Bang when the cosmos had a temperature of around 3,000 Kelvin. Additionally, the Lambda-Cold Dark Matter (ΛCDM) model addresses questions arising from observations of the cosmos, such as the existence of light elements like hydrogen, helium, lithium, and the anisotropy in the CMB, and eventually, the continuous expansion of space. In this model, dark energy, represented as the cosmological constant lambda (Λ), exerts negative pressure on empty space, counteracting the effects of gravity with a repulsive force. While the Standard Model of Particle Physics (SMPP) posits that the universe's matter originated from fundamental particles (quarks and leptons), it cannot explain the origin of these particles and how they came into existence, because general relativity and the SMPP cannot be integrated to explain matter production at the singularity point. T-Consciousness Cosmology introduces the ‘Spherical Cosmos Model’ (SCM) to answer questions about the cause of the explosion, expansion, and shape of the universe, the nature of ordinary matter and energy, dark matter and energy, the fate of the universe, the reason for the high density of objects in the depths of space, etc. In this model, the spherical cosmos has a shell called the ‘Shell of the Cosmos,’ made of Taheri Absolute Matter (TAM) that not only isolates it but also produces dark matter and dark energy, ordinary matter and ordinary energy, and finally space mesh from the inner surface to the inside of the cosmos since the birth of the universe. The Shell of this isolated sphere is currently expanding at a speed faster than the speed of light. In this perspective, dark matter and energy are the same space mesh that have been compressed to varying degrees. Dark energy, which is constantly being released from the Shell into the cosmos, unlike the standard model of cosmology, is one of the factors in the expansion of the isolated cosmos by creating positive pressure in it. Also in this model, the recombination epoch will always be located spherically at a certain distance from the Shell until the ultimate stage of Rebound. In other words, not only is the origin of the CMB not related to the past of the cosmos, but it also exists now, and given the vastness of the sphere and the position of the Earth within this sphere, we detect it in the microwave wavelength with a delay of several billion years. Therefore, the observed distant galaxies that have been attributed to the early epochs of the cosmos in the Big Bang model are currently being created by the Shell according to the Spherical Cosmos Model, and we are surrounded by particles and objects that are constantly being produced.

In 1937, Paul Dirac proposed Large Number Hypothesis and Hypothesis of Variable Gravitational Constant, and later added notion of Continuous Creation of Matter in the World. Hypersphere World-Universe Model (WUM) follows these ideas, albeit introducing different mechanism of Matter creation. In this paper, we show that WUM is a natural continuation of Classical Physics. WUM is proposed as an alternative to prevailing Big Bang Model (BBM) that relies on General Relativity. WUM and BBM are principally different Models: 1) Instead of Initial Singularity with infinite energy density and extremely rapid expansion of spacetime (Inflation) in BBM; in WUM, there was Fluctuation (4D Nucleus of World with extrapolated radius equal to basic size unit of a) in Eternal Universe with finite extrapolated energy density (~104 less than nuclear density) and finite expansion of Nucleus in Its fourth spatial dimension with speed c that is gravitodynamic constant; 2) Instead of alleged practically Infinite Homogeneous and Isotropic Universe around Initial Singularity in BBM; in WUM, 3D Finite Boundless World (Hypersphere of 4D Nucleus) presents Patchwork Quilt of various Luminous Superclusters (≧103), which emerged in different places of World at different Cosmological times. Medium of World, consisting of protons, electrons, photons, neutrinos, and dark matter particles, is Homogeneous and Isotropic. Distribution of Macroobjects is spatially Inhomogeneous and Anisotropic and temporally Non-simultaneous. Most direct observational evidence of validity of WUM are: 1) Microwave Background Radiation and Intergalactic Plasma speak in favor of existence of Medium; 2) Laniakea Supercluster with binding mass ~1017M⊙ is home to Milky Way (MW) and ~105 other nearby galaxies, which did not start their movement from Initial Singularity; 3) MW is gravitationally bounded with Virgo Supercluster (VS) and has Orbital Angular Momentum that far exceeds its rotational angular momentum; 4) Mass-to-light ratio of VS is ~300 times larger than that of Solar ratio. Similar ratios are obtained for other superclusters. These ratios are main arguments in favor of presence of significant amounts of Dark Matter in the World. 5) Astronomers discovered the most distant galaxy HD1 that is ~13.5 Bly away. WUM predicts discovery of galaxies with a distance of ~13.8 Bly. Medium of World, Dark Matter, and Angular Momentum are main Three Pillars of WUM.

Newtonian Cosmology involving a smooth fluid was plagued with the problem of indefiniteness, and General Relativity gave the novel concept of a finite yet unbounded Einstein’s Static Universe (ESU). Later, Big Bang model (BBM) essentially incorporated non-static versions of ESU. Also, the concept of a Cosmological Constant (Λ) got reinstated through “Inflation” and “Dark Energy”. We dismantle this edifice by presenting several exact proofs showing that Λ = 0 and both ESU & deSitter metrics are just the Minkowski vacuum. More importantly, by using the Schwarzschild form of the FRW metric (Mitra, Grav. Cosmology 2013), we show that FRW metric too is actually the Minkowski vacuum! It is suggested that physical universe is quasi-Newtonian where for any given galaxy, finite gravitational potential is due to interaction of nearest neighbors while the infinite background forces cancel due to symmetry (Chandrasekhar, ApJ 1941). Such an universe is likely to have a fractal structure as suggested by observations. The cosmic redshift might arise due to asymmetric spread of wave packets associated with line emissions from distant galaxies. The cosmic background radiation might be due to thermalization of star lights in an eternal universe as suggested by Hoyle. The compact objects in quasars are ultracompact radiation pressure supported stars which may synthesize light elements and whose explosions & flares infuse fresh plasma for a recylcled eternal universe. While these are possibilities, there is indeed no robust alternative cosmology. Though BBM appears to be the best bet, it turns out to be vacuous. In the absence of the BBM singularity, the rationale for “Quantum Gravity” vanishes. It is predicted that there are no primordial Gravitational Waves contrary to BBM suggestion. The fact that the farthest galaxy (z =7 .5) is rich in metals (Finkelstein et al., Nature, 502, 524, 2013) contradicts BBM, and suggests cosmos might be eternal and static.

This highly personal account of evolution of cosmology spans a period of approximately six decades 1959–2017. It begins when in 1959 the author, as an undergraduate at Cambridge, was attracted to the subject by the thought provoking lectures by Fred Hoyle as well as by his popular books The Nature of Universe and The Frontiers of Astronomy. The result was that after a successful performance at the Mathematical Tripos (Part III) examination, he enrolled as a research student of Hoyle. In this article the author describes the interesting works in cosmology that kept him busy both in Cambridge and in India. The issues pertinent to cosmological research in the 1960s and 1970s included the Mach’s principle, the Wheeler-Feynman theory relating the local electromagnetic arrow of time to the cosmological one, the observational tests of specific expanding universe models, and issues like singularity in quantum cosmology. However, post-1965, the nature of cosmological research changed dramatically with the discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR). Given the assumption that the CMBR is a relic of big bang there has been a host of papers on the early universe, going as close to the big bang as the very early universe would permit: around just 10−36 s. The author argues that despite the popularity of the standard hot big bang cosmology (SBBC) it rests on rather shaky foundations. On the theoretical side there is no well established physical framework to support the SBBC; nor is there independent observational support for its assumptions like the nonbaryonic dark matter, inflation and dark energy. While technological progress has made it possible to explore the universe in greater detail with open mind, today’s cosmologists seem caught in a range of speculations in support of the big bang dogma. Thus, in modern times cosmology appears to have lost the Camelot spirit encouraging adventurous studies of the unknown. A spirit of openness is advocated to restore cosmology to its rightful position as the flagship of astronomy.

The leading scientific explanation for the origin of the universe is the Big Bang theory, according to which our universe began 13.8 billion years ago from an infinitely dense and hot point, expanding rapidly into the expanse we see today [1]. The theory emerged from a historical shift from the previously known static universe models [2]. Resultantly, it transformed cosmology in the 20th century. We will also go through the basics of Big Bang Theory and its key evidence, like Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation, Redshift of Galaxies, and Abundance of light elements present in the Universe, to make us understand how our universe evolved. Observational support remains based on these pillars: redshift, CMB and primordial element abundances. The paper also examines perplexing issues related to dark matter, dark energy, and the universe's first moments that remain unresolved. Inflation theory, the singularity problem and what (if anything) might have existed before the Big Bang is also covered. This paper shows a concise and engaging way of explaining the great Big Bang debate by interweaving it with the scientific discoveries of today as well as historical context, making this subject more accessible to all who are interested in humankind's efforts to uncover how the cosmos began. It also takes into account the involvement of modern-day technology and future research in either supporting or possibly redefining the way we look at the universe's origin and fate.

The Big Bang theory is believed to be based on three problems to the tired light model. In this report, “time dilation of high redshift quasars” is first explained with the stress cosmology. A proceeding (delaying) speed of time is shown as a logarithm of changed energy. Second, “surface brightness” relates to “time dilation” and the combined luminosity per unit time. It decreases with time dilation. Third, according to the stress cosmology, the “cosmic microwave background” is explained with a relation between movement distance and decreasing energy quantity of discharged light. Thus, three problems can be explained with the stress cosmology being part of the tired light model. Therefore, there is no absolute proof of the Big Bang theory. Moreover, there is a fatal contradiction relating to the first law of thermodynamics in the Big Bang theory. The Big Bang theory required that the universe be a closed system according to the first law of thermodynamics. Nevertheless, the ekpyrotic universe theory is utilized to explain the Big Bang. The first law of thermodynamics indicates that our universe was an open system. The Big Bang theory is optional.

With the recent measurements of temperature and polarization anisotropies in the microwave background by WMAP, we have entered a new era of precision cosmology, with the cosmological parameters of a Standard Cosmological Model determined to 1%. This Standard Model is based on the Big Bang theory and the inflationary paradigm, a period of exponential expansion in the early universe responsible for the large-scale homogeneity and spatial flatness of our observable patch of the Universe. The spectrum of metric perturbations, seen in the microwave background as temperature anisotropies, were produced during inflation from quantum fluctuations that were stretched to cosmological size by the expansion, and later gave rise, via gravitational collapse, to the observed large-scale structure of clusters and superclusters of galaxies. Furthermore, the same theory predicts that all the matter and radiation in the universe today originated at the end of inflation from an explosive production of particles that could also have been the origin of the present baryon asymmetry, before the universe reached thermal equilibrium at a very large temperature. From there on, the universe cooled down as it expanded, in the way described by the standard hot Big Bang model. Our present understanding of the universe is based upon the successful hot Big Bang theory, which explains its evolution from the rst fraction of a second to our present age, around 13 billion years later. This theory rests upon four strong pillars, a theoretical framework based on general relativity, as put forward by Albert Einstein and Alexander A. Friedmann in the 1920s, and three strong observational facts. First, the expansion of the universe, discovered by Edwin P. Hubble in the 1930s, as a recession of galaxies at a speed proportional to their distance from us. Second, the relative abundance of light elements, explained by George Gamow in the 1940s, mainly that of helium, deuterium and lithium, which were cooked from the nuclear reactions that took place at around a second to a few minutes after the Big Bang, when the universe was a hundred times hotter than the core of the sun. Third, the cosmic microwave background (CMB), the afterglow of the Big Bang, discovered in 1965 by Arno A. Penzias and Robert W. Wilson as a very isotropic blackbody radiation at a temperature of about 3 degrees Kelvin, emitted when the universe was cold enough to form neutral atoms, and photons decoupled from matter, 380 000 years after the Big Bang. Today, these observations are conrmed to within a few percent accuracy, and have helped establish the hot Big Bang as the preferred model of the universe. The Big Bang theory could not explain, however, the origin of matter and structure in the universe; that is, the origin of the matter{antimatter asymmetry, without which the universe today would be lled by a uniform radiation continuosly expanding and cooling, with no traces of matter, and thus without the possibility to form gravitationally bound systems like galaxies, stars and planets that could sustain life. Moreover, the standard Big Bang theory assumes, but cannot explain,

Astronomy is a peculiar science, as one does not do experiments, it simply observes the sky. The amount of information contained in the sky is finite, thus one can wonder if observations can extract all such information, and if so, what can be learned about fundamental physics. It turns out we already have one example where all information in the sky has been extracted. This is the case of the Planck satellite and the temperature of the cosmic microwave background. This satellite has performed a cosmic variance limited observation of the full sky; nobody ever will need to repeat it. Unfortunately, we have not reached the same status with other interesting probes, such as the polarization of the cosmic microwave background and the angular postions and redshifts of galaxies. However, it is not farfetched to think that at the end of this century we will have extracted all information in the sky at most wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum. In any event, even today, we have already obtained significant constraints on fundamental physics using astronomical observations. Here I will describe what our current robust limits are on the mass of neutrinos, how we can discover if they are Majorana or Dirac and what can be said about the nature of dark matter. Most of the material has been presented elsewhere [1, 2, 3] and I refer the interested reader to those papers for full details.

In standard Big Bang cosmology, the universe expanded from a very dense, hot and opaque initial state. The light that was last scattered about 380,000 years later, when the universe had become transparent, has been redshifted and is now seen as thermal radiation with a temperature of 2.7 K, the cosmic microwave background (CMB). However, since light escapes faster than matter can move, it is prudent to ask how we, made of matter from this very source, can still see the light. In order for this to be possible, the light must take a return path of the right length. A curved return path is possible in spatially closed, balloon-like models, but in standard cosmology, the universe is "flat" rather than balloon-like, and it lacks a boundary surface that might function as a reflector. Under these premises, radiation that once filled the universe homogeneously cannot do so permanently after expansion, and we cannot see the last scattering event. It is shown that the traditional calculation of the CMB temperature is flawed and that light emitted by any source inside the Big Bang universe earlier than half its "conformal age", also by distant galaxies, can only become visible to us via a return path. Although often advanced as the best evidence for a hot Big Bang, the CMB actually tells against a formerly smaller universe and so do the most distant galaxies. While standard cosmology has additional deficiencies, those disclosed here defy rationality and therefore make a more well-founded cosmology indispensable.

We use $N$-body simulations to show that high-redshift galaxy counts provide an interesting constraint on the nature of dark matter, specifically Warm Dark Matter (WDM), owing to the lack of early structure formation these models. Our simulations include three WDM models with thermal-production masses of 0.8 keV, 1.3 keV, and 2.6 keV, as well as CDM. Assuming a relationship between dark halo mass and galaxy luminosity that is set by the observed luminosity function at bright magnitudes, we find that 0.8 keV WDM is disfavored by direct galaxy counts in the Hubble Ultra Deep Field at $>\!\!10\sigma$. Similarly, 1.3 keV WDM is statistically inconsistent at $2.2\sigma$. Future observations with JWST (and possibly HST via the Frontier Fields) could rule out $1.3$ keV WDM at high significance, and may be sensitive to WDM masses greater than 2.6 keV. We also examine the ability of galaxies in these WDM models to reionize the universe, and find that 0.8 keV and 1.3 keV WDM produce optical depths to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) that are inconsistent at 68% C.L. with current Planck results, even with extremely high ionizing radiation escape fractions, and 2.6 keV WDM requires an optimistic escape fraction to yield an optical depth consistent with Planck data. Although CMB optical depth calculations are model dependent, we find a strong challenge for stellar processes alone to reionize the universe in a 0.8 keV and 1.3 keV WDM cosmology.

In standard Big Bang cosmology, the universe expanded from a very dense, hot and opaque initial state. The light that was last scattered about 380,000 years later, when the universe had become transparent, has been redshifted and is now seen as thermal radiation with a temperature of 2.7 K, the cosmic microwave background (CMB). However, since light escapes faster than matter can move, it is prudent to ask how we, made of matter from this very source, can still see the light. In order for this to be possible, the light must take a return path of the right length. A curved return path is possible in spatially closed, balloon-like models, but in standard cosmology, the universe is “flat” rather than balloon-like, and it lacks a boundary surface that might function as a reflector. Under these premises, radiation that once filled the universe homogeneously cannot do so permanently after expansion, and we cannot see the last scattering event. It is shown that the traditional calculation of the CMB temperature is inappropriate and that light emitted by any source inside the Big Bang universe earlier than half its “conformal age” can only become visible to us via a return path. Although often advanced as the best evidence for a hot Big Bang, the CMB actually tells against a formerly smaller universe and so do also distant galaxies.