New Regional Alignment in the Post-Soviet Space: The EU as an Active Player in the Eastern Partnership Countries (Case of Georgia)

The Eastern Partnership (EaP) countries face significant challenges in achieving democratic consolidation amid geopolitical tensions, authoritarian tendencies and regional conflicts. This paper examines the resilience of civiliarchic democracy as a framework to understand and address these challenges. The study employs a mixed methods approach including comparative analysis and the Civiliarchy Index to explore the interplay between European integration, democratic resilience and anti-civiliarchic forces. To identify the main principles of EU foreign policy in the EaP countries and its normative component, a qualitative targeted content analysis of official EU documentation was used. Additionally, the method of discourse analysis was used to consider the narrative regarding the participation and lobbying from the EU and European institutions and values within the EaP countries, as well as prepare for the negotiations with EU and EU member states for the interests of EaP countries. Europeanization and democratization determine both the political and social prospects for sustainable development of the EaP countries, as well as the hybrid challenges of strategic security and the dichotomy of inter-integration conflicts. The paper analyzes the gaps in European political integration in the EaP countries for the period from 2013 to 2023. The authors rely on studies on Europeanization and European political integration in the tradition of neo-institutionalism, as well as on the resilience of the EaP countries. The findings of the paper imply that the civiliarchic democracy the EaP countries face is thwarted by internal instability, external pressures and shortcomings in EU policies. But EU’s strategic and engagement can in some extent tackle authoritarian trends and improve democratic institutions. Theoretical and practical insight into the concept of civiliarchic democracy and its resiliency in light of the democratization literature is the main contribution of the study. Policy and scholarly implications of the findings in support of improving democratic institutions and further inclusive European integration in the EaP region are suggested.

UK Migration Policy and Migration from Eastern Partnership Countries

Scientific cooperation is an important part of the European Union (EU)’s policy approach towards the countries in its neighbourhood. This has opened up many opportunities for cooperation in the areas of science, technology, research, and innovation between the EU and the Eastern Partnership (EaP) countries. This working paper reviews the institutional and policy parameters of scientific cooperation between the EU and three EaP countries – Belarus, Moldova, and Ukraine. It provides an overview of the science policies in these countries, focusing on the lasting impact of their shared communist legacies and post-Soviet transitions, as well as on their current strategies, institutions, and ambitions in the domain of science, research and development policy. The paper also reviews the place of scientific cooperation in the EU’s science and external policies, focusing on relations with the neighbourhood and the EaP countries in particular. We also take stock of the existing programmes for scientific and educational cooperation and academic mobility between the EU and EaP countries. We present an inventory of relevant projects, with a discussion of the progress, level of participation of the research communities in the EaP, and other relevant parameters, such as the distribution of projects and participating institutions across broad scientific fields as well as disciplines. Altogether, we find that Belarus, Moldova, and Ukraine have registered a considerable degree of participation in the science and research programmes of the EU, but we also identify a number of barriers and structural impediments to a more successful partnership.

EU-Ukraine DCFTA: The Model for Eastern Partnership Regional Trade Cooperation

In the Eastern Partnership (EaP) countries, the subject of geographical indications is particularly important. Although the approach to the subject of GIs in the EaP countries is uneven and differs from country to country, the attention that each of these states pays at the national level to the field of geographical indications cannot be neglect. In countries such as Georgia and Moldova, the development of the GI system is one of the national strategic objectives. This interest is largely due to those economic benefits offered by the implementation of the geographical indications system, especially in countries where the share of the agri-food sector in GDP is significant. Despite the fact that challenges regarding the implementation of the association agreement in the part concerning geographical indications in the EaP countries are quite similar, there are no complex studies regarding the implementation of the geographical indications systems in the Eastern Partnership Countries. The main purpose of this paper is to fulfill the existing gap and to analyze the current situation in the field of GI highlighting best practices but also the vulnerabilities of the GI system in the EaP countries.

This article examines the critical role of higher education reforms in the Eastern Partnership (EaP) countries since their independence as they endeavor to align their systems with European standards and norms, ultimately seeking closer integration with the European Union (EU). The EaP countries, comprising Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Moldova, and Ukraine, have embarked on ambitious journeys of transformation in their higher education sectors to foster economic development, enhance academic excellence, and strengthen regional cooperation. The article employs a comprehensive approach, encompassing both policy analysis and empirical insights to shed light on the multifaceted nature of higher education reforms across the region. It delves into the various challenges and opportunities faced by the EaP countries in their pursuit of European integration through higher education reforms. The key themes explored include the alignment of the national higher education reforms with the Bologna Declaration guidelines including the promotion of internationalization and quality assurance mechanisms emphasizing the importance of cross-border collaboration and knowledge exchange. It critically assesses the progress made so far, highlighting successes and identifying persistent obstacles. Moreover, it examines the role of international organizations and the EU programs in supporting these reforms. The analysis highlights the importance of higher education reforms in the EaP region not only as an instrument for achieving European integration but also as a catalyst for broader societal and economic transformations. The research data collected refer to the period of 1991-2020.

The peculiarities of implementing the policy of the EU’s Eastern Partnership Initiative in regards to protecting the rights of national minorities have been studied. The issue of national minorities in the EU is considered from the perspectives of security, democracy, and regional integration. Despite contemporary criticism of the EU’s Eastern Partnership Initiative, many initiatives aimed at protecting the rights of national minorities in the region have been implemented, thereby fostering intergovernmental cooperation. It is evident that Ukraine and Moldova are the most proactive in protecting the rights of national minorities amongst the Eastern Partnership countries. These countries have been granted the status of candidate for EU accession. Despite the Russian-Ukrainian war, Ukraine actively works on improving legislation in the field of ethno-policy. Particular emphasis is placed on analysis of the institutional structure of national minorities, communication pathways, and non-discriminatory policies in Eastern Partnership countries. Member states of the Eastern Partnership actively utilize “soft power” techniques through a network of minority organizations. It has been suggested that European integration of Ukraine and Moldova has generated considerable opportunities for the development of national minorities. Loosening of state borders has enabled national minorities to connect more deeply with their ethnic homelands, thereby transforming them into engaged participants of transborder cooperation and significant figures of regional policy. The Eastern Partnership furnishes a platform for minorities to assert themselves in decisions which pertain to their lives, execute grant initiatives, and take part in regional associations of minorities. Nevertheless, certain risks are highlighted, such as particular nations exploiting EU enlargement to tackle minority matters or manipulate minority rights. The EU has analyzed programs supporting national minorities, especially those implemented in the Eastern Partnership countries. While Eastern Partnership countries have developed their policies regarding national minorities, there are common problems faced by minorities in the region. Ukraine, Georgia, Moldova, Azerbaijan, and Armenia are involved in conflicts, being former Soviet Union countries, and face numerous challenges concerning the functioning of the Russian minority, which is numerically significant in this region. It is stated that the EU cooperates with the Eastern Partnership countries on matters regarding national minorities, and it is crucial to develop innovative models for managing ethnic diversity, promoting the involvement of national minorities in making socio-political decisions and integrating them into society.

The COVID-19 pandemic has significantly increased the role of social media in the communication policy of educational institutions. Ensuring the effective use of social networks to communicate with target audiences requires universities to understand, among other things, the importance of cultural context for the audience’s engagement.We analyzed the engagement rates (ER) in Facebook and Instagram for the most influential universities in the Eastern Partnership (EaP) countries to determine the influence of the country’s cultural characteristics.The study examines two hypotheses. H1: Stakeholders in collectivist cultures with a high level of power distance are more likely to increase online engagement when limited in offline communication. H2: High uncertainty avoidance countries with long-term orientation will demonstrate broader social media engagement.The results showed that the dynamics of stakeholder activity in the social networks Facebook and Instagram for the most influential universities in the Eastern Partnership countries do not depend on the country’s cultural profile.Thus, we can conclude that universities can expand their presence in the digital communication space while addressing representatives of their target audiences from different countries without differentiating their communication messages. The study results also indicate the prospects for expanding remote students’ mobility programs as they will not require different approaches to effective digital communication. JEL classіfіcatіon: M30, M39, I20, I29

The paper deals with a highly complicated problem related to the development of economic relations between the European Union and the so-called Eastern Partnership countries – Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Moldova and Ukraine. The essence of the problem is the extremely excessive level of the shadow economy in the Eastern Partnership countries: the shadow economy considerably affects the situation in the Eastern Partnership countries and it causes in addition a profound negative impact on the economic cooperation with the European Union. The assessment and monitoring of shifts in shadow economies in the Eastern Partnership countries is a crucial issue for the European Union, in particular to make responsible and reasoned policy decisions on the economic cooperation between the European Union and the Eastern Partnership countries. This fact leads to the needs to create and use adequate instruments for modelling and evaluating the shadow economy. The opportunities of using various tools for modelling and evaluating the shadow economy are discussed herein. The main focus of attention is directed to the new integrated approach to shadow economy modelling: this approach is distinguished by the fact that the shadow economy is analyzed and assessed in a holistic manner upon taking into account the different aspects of economic life and economic development processes. A new model applicable to the assessment of the shadow economy in the Eastern Partnership countries is described; this model is based on the idea of the so-called Tanzi model and was developed by covering the traditionally used independent variables such as taxes, wages and salaries, as well as the new modified indicators. The paper describes empirical research on modelling and estimating of the scope and dynamics of the shadow economy in the Eastern Partnership countries, as well as the principal results of the said research. It has been shown that the shadow economy in the Eastern Partnership countries is highly, extensively and even dangerously developed. The results of the research show an existence of a link between the size of the shadow economy and the control of corruption, but this link is very diverse in different countries. The methodological approach and research results presented in the paper can be used to create a decision support system for the development of the economic relations between the European Union and the Eastern Partnership countries.

The economic relations of the European Union (EU) with the Eastern Partnership (EaP) countries are diverse in terms of their formal basis, scope and size. All EaP countries were already covered by the Generalised System of Preferences (GSP) in 1993/1994 and some by the additional GSP+ scheme in 2005, and bilateral Partnership and Cooperation Agreements (with the exception of Belarus) in 1998–1999, replaced in 2016–2018 by an Association Agreement with a DCFTA for Georgia, Moldova and Ukraine, and in Armenia by a comprehensive and strengthened Partnership Agreement. However, the analysis of trade flows between 2007 and 2017 did not reveal a clear link between the volume of trade and the type of agreement governing economic relations. Although for most Eastern Partnership countries, the EU is the most important export market (except for Belarus) and the most important supplier (except for Armenia and Belarus), for the EU as a whole, the EaP countries remain second and third tier partners.

<p>Georgia is among the countries which have fresh groundwater distinguished for significant resources and drinking qualities of naturally high quality. Hydrogeological exploration and monitoring works for the purpose of identification, study and protection of fresh groundwater were not conducted in the period of 1990–2013. Considering the long-term termination of centralized researches and the intensively increasing anthropogenic pressures on the environment and on water in particular, the assessment and protection of groundwater resources becomes a very pressing issue. For this purpose, in 2013, on initiative of the Geology Department of LEPL National Environmental Agency of Georgia and the Czech Development Agency, restoration of the hydrogeological monitoring network and research of fresh groundwater using modern methodology began. The modern equipment was gradually installed on the water objects to obtain information about quantitative and qualitative characteristics in "online" mode and taking water samples for chemical and bacterial analysis twice a year. Currently, 56 water points (mainly wells) are being monitored. The database on quantitative and qualitative characteristics of fresh groundwater of Georgia is being expanding based on information received online from water points, fieldwork results, laboratory analyzes (chemical and bacteriological), and on the processing, analyzing and generalizing of the collected actual materials. As the issue concerns fresh groundwater (which is used by at least 90% of the population), it’s necessary to expand the state monitoring network. According to the EU Water Framework Directive, based on the basin management principles of water resources, conduct of researches is granted particular significance in the trans-boundary zone.</p><p>The „European Union Water Initiative Plus for Eastern Partnership (EaP) Countries (EUWI+)″, which is the biggest commitment of the EU to the water sector in the EaP countries, helps Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Moldova and Ukraine to bring their legislation closer to EU policy in the field of water management, as identified by the EU Water Framework Directive. The EUWI+ project addresses existing challenges in both development and implementation of efficient management of water resources.. Monitoring data are an important basis for water management, for risk, status and trend assessment and for the design and implementation of an effective and cost-efficient program of measures .</p><p>Within the EUWI+ project, the following key activities were undertaken in Georgia: „Delineation and characterization of groundwater bodies and the design of a groundwater monitoring network in the Alazani-Iori and Khrami-Debed River Basin Districts in Georgia“, „Performed hydrogeological preliminary field works in the Alazani-Iori and Khrami-Debed River Basin“. Currently „Geophysical, isotope, hydrochemical, bacteriological and hydrodynamic assessment of twelve selected wells to be included in the national groundwater monitoring network in the Alazani-Iori River Basin District in Georgia“ is in progress. The results of this study are a basis for the improvement of the groundwater monitoring network and the development of River Basin Management Plans. As a part of the EUWI+ project, several new monitoring stations are planned.</p><p>The results are important in the process of implementation of integrated management of water resources, which should finally ensure sustainable management of water resources and reliable health protection of the population.</p>

Integration Without Membership: Normative Hegemony of EU Competition Procedures in the Eastern Partnership? - Procedural Aspects of Competition Law in the EU Association Agreements with the Eastern Partnership Countries (Ukraine, Moldova, Georgia)

The article presents the criteria for the effectiveness of the implementation of state management mechanisms in the sphere of economic cooperation of the Eastern Partnership countries. It has been proven that every certain period for the implementation of state administration in the sphere of economic cooperation of the Eastern Partnership countries becomes a rather relevant and necessary mechanism, in accordance with the criteria of effectiveness, namely: relevance - the criterion for assessing the need for mechanisms is the perspective of the implementation of the tasks in the direction of formation and implementation public administration in the sphere of economic cooperation of the Eastern Partnership countries; cost-effectiveness - an indicator of the effectiveness of the mechanisms - when the planned result significantly exceeds the costs for their implementation in the process of public administration in the sphere of economic cooperation of the Eastern Partnership countries; minimization of various types of costs (relevant material, human, monetary and other); effectiveness - the indicator for evaluating the effectiveness of the relevant mechanisms is the determined ratio of the number of used resources (relevant material, evolutionary, human, resource, and others) with the result obtained in the process of formation and implementation of public administration in the sphere of economic cooperation of the Eastern Partnership countries. Keywords: European Union, European integration, Eastern Partnership, public administration, performance Criteria.

The article suggests that ten years after the Eastern Partnership initiative was founded, its format and structure do not allow to draw full potential of the states that seek European Union membership. The author emphasizes that the change in the EU’s approach to the Eastern Partnership countries will make it possible to ensure the accomplishment of the fundamental mission of the European Neighbourhood Policy, namely peace and prosperity in the region. The European Union has already done quite a lot in this regard. Expanding the EU’s social rights as part of the Europeanization process will provide a more stable and favourable environment in the Eastern Partnership countries and reduce migration flows therefrom. The main efforts of the European Union and Eastern Partnership countries in the near future will be focused on solving domestic political, social and economic problems. In this case, Ukraine and the region as a whole will appear on the European Union agenda in terms of security issues. The biggest success story of the European Union is its enlargement policy, which can force enemies to negotiate and find a compromise, as well as motivate political leaders to take risks for the implementation of European integration reforms. This policy does not apply to Eastern Partnership countries. The author concludes that the neighbourhood policy has already exhausted its potential, and in order for the dialogue within the Eastern partnership not to descend to the solution of technical issues of the European Union Association Agreements implementation, it is necessary to offer an attractive model of cooperation that would provide support for pro-European reforms in the Eastern Partnership countries. Keywords: European Union, Eastern Partnership, politics, bilateral dialogue.

BackgroundSince the dissolution of the USSR, the former Soviet countries not included in the enlargement of the European Union (EU) have experienced divergent development. While the so‐called Eastern Partnership (EaP) countries established closer ties with the EU, the Central Asian (CA) states mostly gravitated towards Russia and China. Thus, despite belonging to a similar economic and political system, the two groups of countries pursued transition to a market‐oriented economy and fostering development with varying results, creating a neat contrast to facilitate the study of patterns of growth and disparity.PurposeBased on an analysis covering more than two decades, the article explores the growth paths of the EaP and CA countries. Given their bumpy economic performances, the article aims, first, to show how these affected economic disparities among them. Second, it aims to identify the factors which most influenced different development trajectories.Approach and methodsThrough analysis of panel data, the article seeks to explain long‐term economic growth (1992–2015) in terms of endowments of production factors, macroeconomic stabilization and transition reforms, external conditions and institutional development. Sources of growth are identified to reveal how they affected income per capita and shaped convergence in the two groups of countries.FindingsThe EaP and CA countries show different growth patterns since the end of communism. While the EaP economies shrank more during the 1990s compared to the CA group, they bounced back faster during the 2000s. The EaP economies, being more closely connected to the EU, were more affected by the Great Recession of 2007–2009 than those of the CA. Overall, economic disparities between these sets of countries have slightly increased. Physical capital, foreign direct investment, natural resources, openness to trade and the transition reforms significantly explain economic growth, with stronger effects in the EaP compared to CA countries, which suggests the EU’s neighbourhood instruments have been effective in promoting growth.Policy implicationsOur findings suggest that stepping up reforms, preserving macroeconomic stability, enhancing openness to trade and accumulating factors of production spurred growth in both EaP and CA countries. Pursuing closer ties with the EU economies fostered growth by strengthening investment, foreign trade, structural and market reforms, and by better use of natural resources.Given the large variations seen between countries in both groups, more detailed country diagnoses are needed to tailor interventions according to the specifics of each country.