New Proof of Edgar Allan Poe’s James River Swim

Development of historic and synthesized unregulated streamflow for the James River in North Dakota and South Dakota, 1983-91

<em>Abstract</em>.—Introduced blue catfish <em>Ictalurus furcatus</em> populations in tidal rivers of the Atlantic slope support important recreational and commercial fisheries, with the James River trophy fishery being nationally recognized. During the period 2001–2008, low-frequency (15 pulses/s) pulsed DC electrofishing was used to sample blue catfish in tidal fresh-oligohaline sections of the James, Mattaponi, Pamunkey, and Rappahannock River systems; 54,174 blue catfish were collected, and 4,660 of these were aged using otoliths. Mean catch per unit effort (CPUE) was generally high (ranging from 223 to 6,106 fish per hour). Trends of increasing CPUE through time occurred in the James (839–4,449 fish per hour) and Rappahannock (1,400–6,106 fish per hour) rivers, and differences in CPUE were detected among rivers. Temporal shifts in growth (mean length at age) were observed, with growth slowing for all ages in the Pamunkey River and slowing for older ages in the Mattaponi (ages 9–13) and Rappahannock (ages 8–12 and age 14) rivers. In the Pamunkey and Rappahannock rivers, a negative relationship existed between growth (mean length at age 10) and density (CPUE). Although density increased dramatically in the James River, growth remained stable. Growth varied among rivers; by the end of the study, mean total length at age 10 ranged from 416 mm in the Rappahannock River to 675 mm in the James River. Growth through age 15 fi t linear models, as opposed to the von Bertalanffy nonlinear curve. In three of the four populations, the maximum age sampled increased in each succeeding survey year, and the maturing of all four populations was reflected in concurrent increases in size distributions. Recruitment was variable, with coincident strong and weak year-classes occurring in all four populations—an implication that landscape-level environmental variables play a role in determining recruitment success. In three of the four populations, patterns in year-class strength persisted, with correlation of catch-curve residuals from surveys separated by time. Approximately 35 years poststocking in the James and Rappahannock rivers and 25 years poststocking in the Mattaponi River, these populations had not yet reached equilibrium. It is unknown what the dynamics of blue catfish abundance, growth, and survival will be in the long-term in these rivers, leaving uncertainty regarding the future of the fisheries the populations support, as well as unanswered questions related to potential effects on other species.

A preliminary assessment of the hydrologic characteristics of the James River in South Dakota

The James River, which originates in North Dakota and joins the Missouri River near Yankton, South Dakota, is about 747 miles long, with about 474 river miles located in South Dakota. The James River basin includes 21,116 square miles, with 14,428 square miles located in South Dakota. Bankfull capacity of the James River in South Dakota ranges from a minimum of about 200 cubic feet per second in the northern portion to a maximum of about 10,000 cubic feet per second near the mouth. Discharges that produce bankfull conditions on much of the river in South Dakota occur on an average of once in about 2 years. The 10-year flood flows, which range from 1 ,620 cubic feet per second (at the gage near Stratford) to 8,870 cubic feet per second (at the gage near Scotland), cause major flooding on most of the river in South Dakota. The river also has potential for extended periods of low or zero flow, especially in the northern portion within South Dakota. Generally, low flows occur from late summer until spring snowmelt. The James River at Columbia had zero flow for 623 consecutive days from July 13, 1958, through March 26, 1960. The channel pattern (channel alignment) has changed little since 1922. This channel stability indicates that channel formation is approaching a state of equilibrium. It does not appear that velocities in the river are sufficient to carry the sediment being delivered by the tributaries. INTRODUCTION Background In 1984, a Federally appointed Garrison Diversion Unit Study Commission recommended major changes in the Garrison Diversion Unit (GDU) in North Dakota (Garrison Diversion Unit Commission, 1984). On May 12, 1986, the Garrison Diversion Unit Reformulation Act of 1986 was signed into law. There are eight specific study areas identified within the Reformulation Act (H.R. 1116), seven of which are directly associated with impacts to the James River. The Reformulation Act directs the Secretary of Interior to submit a comprehensive report to the Congress as soon as practicable but not later than the end of fiscal year 1988 (Amended Section 5(C)(1) Public Law 89-108). The U.S. Bureau of Reclamation is the lead agency for evaluating the potential effects of GDU on the James River in South Dakota. As part of this evaluation, the Bureau requested that the U.S. Geological Survey conduct the flood-frequency, flow-duration, and channel-forming-flow studies that are summarized in this report. Objectives The objectives of this study were to analyze flood-flow frequency, flow duration, and channel-forming flow for the James River in South Dakota. Flood-flow frequency analyses also were made for certain tributaries within the James River basin. The study effort was limited to the analysis of existing discharge records. The drainage area for the entire basin within South Dakota was determined. A separate drainage-area map report was prepared (Benson and others, 1987). Physical Setting The James River, which originates in North Dakota and joins the Missouri River near Yankton, S. Dak., is about 7^7 mi long, with about 474 river miles located in South Dakota (fig. 1). The total area of the James River basin is 21,116 mi 2 , with 14,428 mi 2 located within South Dakota. Additional information concerning the river setting and hydrology can be found in a previous study by Benson (1983). The gaging stations for which discharge records were analyzed as a part of this study are identified on figure 1. Data for continuous-record gaging stations operated by the U.S. Geological Survey within the James River basin in South Dakota are included in table 1 (main-stem stations) and in table 2 (tributary stations). ANALYSIS OF FLOOD FREQUENCY Statistical flood-flow frequency analyses were made for the main-stem gaging stations and .for gaged tributaries that have 10 or more years of continuous record. The analyses were made by using the log-Pearson Type III frequency distribution based on procedures recommended by the U.S. Water Resources Council (1981). The frequency analyses were made on two sets of flow data for the mainstem locations and for the tributary gages. The first frequency analyses were made for the instantaneous peak flow data stored in the Water Data Storage and Retrieval System (WATSTORE) Peak Flow File for each gaging station. The second frequency analyses were made for data sets containing the maximum daily mean discharge which occurred at each gaging station during the months of June, July, and August of each year (that is, a summer discharge). The analyses were made on the maximum daily mean discharge because instantaneous peak flow data are not generally available for the months of June, July, and August. Inspection of flow data on the James River indicates that the maximum daily mean discharge generally is within 5 percent of the instantaneous peak flow occurring on that same day. NORTH DAKOTA SOUTH DAKOTA

New data are presented that alter somewhat the basic concepts of the geology of the Coastal Plain in Virginia. These may be summarized as follows: Upper Cretaceous deposits have a rather wide range of distribution south of the James River but are apparently lacking immediately north of the James River; Eocene sediments, generally less than 100 feet thick south of the James River, are known to be several hundred feet thick throughout most of the Coastal Plain north of the James River and thicknesses up to about 800 feet are known at Fort Monroe. A structural contour map on the Eocene-Miocene contact shows that that boundary is gently but definitely warped. Interpretations based on these data are as follows. The lack of Upper Cretaceous sediments at Newport News and Fort Monroe is ascribed to pre-Eocene channeling rather than to relative uplift of that area with respect to Norfolk. Post-Upper Cretaceous channel filling is not the complete explanation for all the thickening of sediments north of the James River and that area is believed to have subsided throughout Eocene time. Subsidence is accounted for by faulting of the basement rock. The fault is thought to trend westward along the James River and approach the Fall Zone; the maximum displacement along the postulated fault, from 300 to 600 feet, occurs in the Hampton Roads area. In post-Miocene time the area was gently folded as a result of settling movements along a pre-existing fault or series of faults. Geophysical data are drawn upon to substantiate the interpretations presented and to show the probable similarity of the Cape Fear region in North Carolina to the Hampton Roads region in Virginia.

American Shad Alosa sapidissima is an anadromous clupeid that once supported a robust fishery but has declined drastically throughout its native range due to overfishing, dam proliferation, and poor water quality. A hatchery program on the James River in Virginia was introduced in 1992 to support the recovery of stocks. Following a moratorium of the fishery enacted in 1994, a fisheries-independent survey was initiated in 1998 to monitor the population recovery efforts and status of American Shad stocks in Virginia. This paper examined 22 years of monitoring data for the James River and determined the effect of hatchery inputs on the James River stock of American Shad. The spawning stock index increased from 2.57 in 1998 to a peak of 9.33 in 2003 but has generally been declining since and has been at very low levels in most recent years. The hatchery prevalence for female American Shad (i.e., the percentage of fish derived from the hatchery) ranged between 3.6% and 60.5%. Years with higher spawning stock index values were significantly correlated to higher percentages of hatchery fish returning to spawn. The stock–recruitment relationship was best explained by the Ricker model, which had the lowest residual standard error and Akaike information criterion value. A threshold level of hatchery-released individuals (approximately 4 million larvae) was necessary to achieve the highest numbers of returning spawners, but stocking above 7 million larvae correlated with declining returns. Long-term monitoring of the James River American Shad spawning population allowed for the critical examination of the contribution of hatchery individuals to the yearly spawning run and the relative success rate of each hatchery year-class. From these data, we consider that the James River spawning stock of American Shad was dependent upon hatchery inputs, with ideal hatchery returns occurring during years of moderate levels of hatchery stocking.

Atlantic sturgeon (Acipenser oxyrinchus oxyrinchus, Acipenseridae) populations are currently at severely depleted levels due to historic overfishing, habitat loss, and pollution. The importance of biologically correct stock structure for effective conservation and management efforts is well known. Recent improvements in our understanding of Atlantic sturgeon migrations, movement, and the occurrence of putative dual spawning groups leads to questions regarding the true stock structure of this endangered species. In the James River, VA specifically, captures of spawning Atlantic sturgeon and accompanying telemetry data suggest there are two discrete spawning groups of Atlantic sturgeon. The two putative spawning groups were genetically evaluated using a powerful microsatellite marker suite to determine if they are genetically distinct. Specifically, this study evaluates the genetic structure, characterizes the genetic diversity, estimates effective population size, and measures inbreeding of Atlantic sturgeon in the James River. The results indicate that fall and spring spawning James River Atlantic sturgeon groups are genetically distinct (overall FST = 0.048, F’ST = 0.181) with little admixture between the groups. The observed levels of genetic diversity and effective population sizes along with the lack of detected inbreeding all indicated that the James River has two genetically healthy populations of Atlantic sturgeon. The study also demonstrates that samples from adult Atlantic sturgeon, with proper sample selection criteria, can be informative when creating reference population databases. The presence of two genetically-distinct spawning groups of Atlantic sturgeon within the James River raises concerns about the current genetic assignment used by managers. Other nearby rivers may also have dual spawning groups that either are not accounted for or are pooled in reference databases. Our results represent the second documentation of genetically distinct dual spawning groups of Atlantic sturgeon in river systems along the U.S. Atlantic coast, suggesting that current reference population database should be updated to incorporate both new samples and our increased understanding of Atlantic sturgeon life history.

The Atlantic Sturgeon (​Acipenser oxyrinchus oxyrinchus, Mitchell​ ) is an anadromous species that spawns in tidal freshwater rivers from Canada to Florida. Overfishing, river sedimentation and alteration of the river bottom have decreased Atlantic Sturgeon populations, and NOAA lists the species as endangered. Ecologists sometimes find it difficult to locate individuals of a species that is rare, endangered or invasive. The need for methods less invasive that can create more resolution of cryptic species presence is necessary. Environmental DNA (eDNA) is a non­invasive means of detecting rare, endangered, or invasive species by isolating nuclear or mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) from the water column. We evaluated the potential of eDNA to document the presence of Atlantic Sturgeon in the James River, Virginia. Genetic primers targeted the mitochondrial Cytochrome Oxydase I gene, and a restriction enzyme assay (​DraIII​) was developed. Positive control mesocosm and James River samples revealed a nonspecific sequence—mostly bacteria commonly seen in environmental waters. Methods more stringent to a single species was necessary. Novel qPCR primers were derived from a second region of Cytochrome Oxydase II​, and subject to quantitative PCR. This technique correctly identified Atlantic Sturgeon DNA and differentiated among other fish taxa commonly occurring in the lower James River, Virginia. Quantitative PCR had a biomass detection limit of 32.3 ug/L and subsequent analysis of catchment of Atlantic Sturgeon from the Lower James River, Virginia from the fall of 2013 provided estimates of 264.2 ug/L Atlantic Sturgeon biomass. Quantitative PCR sensitivity analysis and incorporation of studies of the hydrology of the James River should be done to further define habitat utilization by local Atlantic Sturgeon populations.

Historically the Chesapeake Bay supported a large population of Atlantic sturgeonAcipenser oxyrinchus, but loss of suitable spawning habitat and overfishing coincided with dramatic in‐system declines throughout the 20th century. Atlantic sturgeon harvest moratoriums were implemented in 1974 for Virginia waters and were expanded coastwide in 1998. In 1997, researchers became aware that commercial fishers in the James River, a tributary of the Chesapeake Bay, were catching juvenile and subadult Atlantic sturgeon as bycatch in various fisheries. Genetic studies showed that the Chesapeake Bay population has maintained genetic integrity and qualifies as a distinct population segment. Between 2007 and 2011, almost 150 adults have been caught in the tidal–freshwater portion of the James River during putative spawning runs. Pectoral fin spines from juveniles and subadults collected in the Burwell Bay (rkm 40) and Cobham Bay (rkm 60) areas and mature adult samples from vessel strikes in freshwater around or above rkm 120 were analyzed to create a length‐at‐age curve for Atlantic sturgeon in the James River. Five models were used to analyze the data, and the double von Bertalanffy (k1= 0.054,k2= 0.097,t1= −2.85,t2= 1.09,tp= 6.03 years,L∞= 2241 mm) provided the best fit to the observed data. We estimated an increase in growth coefficient attp, which could be an artifact of low sample size or due to ontogenetic changes in habitat use as older fish spend more time in oceanic waters than younger fish. Atlantic sturgeon in the 6–9 year age range are rarely encountered in the James River compared with younger and older age‐classes, so a more in‐depth analysis of the increased growth coefficient would require ocean sampling.

A depletion electrofishing study was conducted on two Virginia rivers to estimate the density and biomass of smallmouth bass Micropterus dolomieu. Population estimates generated by a maximum likelihood analysis (MLM) were compared with those derived by the Leslie method. Also, population size structures from depletion samples were compared with those from single-pass surveys. Adult smallmouth bass were successfully depleted in three to five runs at most sites, and estimates averaged 386/km (SE = 132) and 47/ha (SE = 17) on the Rappahannock River and 265/km (SE = 90) and 38/ha (SE = 20) on the James River. Age-0 population estimates averaged 221/km (SE = 60) and 28/ha (SE = 14) on the Rappahannock River and 248/km (SE = 88) and 31/ha (SE = 14) on the James River. Capture probability was highest (mean = 0.40) for adult bass on the Rappahannock River and lowest (mean = 0.17) for age-0 bass on the James River. Population estimates based on the Leslie method, which regressed catch per effort on cumulative catch (lagged for one run), were greater than those generated by MLM, but the differences were relatively consistent and averaged 25%. Single-pass runs provided biased estimates of size structure at two of four Rappahannock River sites based on total length comparisons of stock size fish and structural indices (more large fish were captured by depletion electrofishing); however, little size selectivity bias existed between methods on the James River. This study suggests that smallmouth bass densities can be successfully estimated from sample reaches within large Virginia rivers and provides cautious optimism that single-pass electrofishing adequately describes smallmouth bass population size structure in some Virginia rivers.

Due to the unpredictable nature of intense storms and logistical constraints of sampling during storms, little is known about their immediate and long-term impacts on water quality in adjacent aquatic ecosystems. By combining targeted experiments with routine monitoring, we evaluated immediate impacts of two successive storm events on water quality and phytoplankton community response in the tidal James River and compared these findings to a non-storm year. The James River is a subestuary of the Chesapeake Bay and sampling was conducted before, during, and after Hurricane Irene and Tropical Storm (TS) Lee in 2011 and during the same time period (late summer/early fall) in 2012 when there were no storms. We collected and compiled data on nutrient and chlorophyll a concentrations, phytoplankton abundance, nitrogen uptake, primary productivity rates, and surface salinity, temperature, and turbidity in the meso- and polyhaline segments of the James River. Hurricane Irene introduced significant amounts of freshwater over the entire James River and Chesapeake Bay watersheds, while rainfall from TS Lee fell primarily on the tidal fresh region of the James River and headwaters of the Chesapeake Bay. Dinoflagellates dominated the algal community in the meso- and polyhaline segments prior to the storms in 2011, and a mixed diatom community emerged after the storms. In the mesohaline river segment, cyanobacteria abundance increased after TS Lee when salinities were depressed, likely due to washout from the oligohaline and tidal fresh regions of the river. In 2012, dinoflagellates dominated the community in both segments of the river during late summer but diatoms were also abundant and their biomass fluctuated throughout the summer and fall. Cyanobacteria were not present in either segment. Overall, we observed that the high-intensity rainfall from Hurricane Irene combined with high flushing in the headwaters as a result of TS Lee likely reduced primary productivity and altered community composition in the mesohaline segment but not the more estuarine-influenced polyhaline segment. Understanding the influence of high freshwater flow with a short residence time associated with storms is key to the planning and management of estuarine restoration as such disturbances are projected to increase as a result of climate change.

Silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix Valenciennes, 1844) have been invading North American rivers for decades, often altering zooplankton community structure and impacting native fishes. Silver carp invaded eastern South Dakota tributaries of the Missouri River in the early 2000s. Changes in dynamic rate functions can occur as invasive populations move to the latter stages of the invasion curve, but direct temporal assessments of silver carp populations are limited. Our objectives were to compare current growth of silver carp 1) between the Big Sioux and James rivers in South Dakota and 2) with previous growth recorded from the early stages of invasion (2009–2012) in these rivers. We collected silver carp in May and June of 2020–2022 using boat electrofishing and cast netting. We extracted lapilli otoliths for consensus aging from 99 and 82 silver carp from the Big Sioux and James rivers, respectively. We evaluated growth for each population using Bayesian von Bertalanffy models and compared posterior mean length at ages 2–5 to determine the probabilities of differences between rivers and with estimates from the introduction stage. Posterior estimated mean L∞ values were similar between the Big Sioux (714 mm) and James rivers (709 mm); however, the probability that the posterior mean K estimate was greater for silver carp in the James River (0.271) than the Big Sioux River (0.248) was >99.9%. Estimated mean lengths at age 2 were larger in the Big Sioux and James samples than during the introduction stage, but mean lengths at ages 3–5 were smaller. Changes in growth characteristics indicate that growth has slowed in the current establishment stage of invasion from the earlier introduction stage.

Harmful algal blooms (HABs) have frequently occurred in the James River. The State has convened a Scientific Advisory Panel (SAP) to review the James River chlorophyll-a standards. The SAP will conduct a scientific study to review the basis for setting the chlorophyll-a standards. To support the SAP study of chlorophyll-a standards, the State of Virginia has decided to develop a numerical modeling system that is capable of simulating phytoplankton and HABs. The modeling system includes a watershed model, a three-dimensional hydrodynamic model and water quality models. The focus of this study will be on the development and verification of the hydrodynamic model. In order to simulate the complex geometry of the James River, a high-resolution model has been implemented. The model has been calibrated for a long-term period of 23 years. A series of model experiments was conducted to evaluate the impact of forcings on dynamic simulation and transport time. It was found that freshwater discharge is the most sensitive for an accurate simulation of salinity and transport time. The water age predicted by the model in the tidal freshwater region represents the fluctuation of transport processes, and it has a good correlation with the algal bloom, while at the downstream, the transport time simulation agrees with the delay of the HAB in the mesohaline of the James after the HAB occurred in the Elizabeth River due to the transport processes. The results indicate that the hydrodynamic model is capable of simulating the dynamic processes of the James and driving water quality models in the James River.

The case of the missing flood: the unrecorded flood of 1935 on the James River, Mason County, Texas

Fish consumption and PCB-associated health risks in recreational fishermen on the James River, Virginia