Networks, Norms, and Trust: The Social Psychology of Social Capital∗ 2004 Cooley Mead Award Address

Creating the Conditions for Intergenerational Justice: Social Capital and Compliance

Theories on social capital and their effects on social entrepreneurship has mainly underlined the power of social capital to generate enterprises and to foster good relations between third sector organizations and public sector. This paper proposes a different perspective to consider role in build social capital of a third sector enterprise: multistakeholder social cooperative are seen, at the same time, as social capital result, creators, and incubators. To represent this perspective we’ll use a qualitative system dynamic approach in which social capital is measured throw some proxy. Italian Social cooperatives has become during last twenty years main producers of social welfare service: some of them adopt a multistakeholder governance model and declare themselves as “community enterprise” choosing to represent “general interest of the community and integrating in an enterprise activity”. Sometimes they operate integrating disadvantaged people in work activities,these are work integration social enterprise, some of them, as effect of local authorities contracts. are involved in managing public services. Often these typology of social enterprises are engaged by people who come from third sector organizations and this is the way in which they continue their personal commitment in social enterprises. These people bring their relation and these “personal weak ties” are fundamental in developing cooperatives: so social capital developed in other third sector entities is transferred in multistakeholder cooperative. Cooperation of voluntary, customers, community leaders and third sector local organizations are fundamental to establish trust relations between cooperative and public local authorities. These relations help cooperatives to have long term contracts with local authorities contract as provider of social services and make them possible to innovate the services, developing experiences and management models and exchanging them with the public officers. The long-term relations and the organizational relations that linked social cooperatives and public organizations contribute to create and renovate social capital. In this way multistakeholder cooperatives originated by social capital developed in third sector organizations produce new social capital within the cooperatives and between cooperatives (entrepreneurial components of third sector) and public sector. In their entrepreneurial life cooperatives has to contrast the “working drift” in which only workers remain as members of the cooperative while others stakeholders (volunteers, customer, local social leaders) don’t continue their participation in cooperative. These people different from workers are (stake)holders of “weak ties” fundamental to make a worker’s cooperative an authentic social multistakeholders cooperative. To maintain the multistakeholders governance, and the relations with third sector and civil society, social cooperative has to reinforce participation and dialogue with civil society through continue effort of inclusion of people bringing social proposal. We try to represent these process in a system dynamic model, measuring social capital created by social cooperatives through some proxy as number of volunteers and deep cooperation with public institution. Using a reverse-engineering approach we can individuate the determinants of the creation of social capital and so give support to governance that create social capital. In this way, relations between third sector, public sector are at the same time in a social multistakeholder enterprise resulting and building social capital.

PurposeBuilding social capital within buyer‐supplier relationships is often associated with high performing supply chains. However, little research has examined the mechanisms by which social capital is formed. The purpose of this paper is to examine the effects of relational and contractual governance mechanisms on the formation of social capital under varying levels of demand and supply uncertainty.Design/methodology/approachA conceptual framework is developed, grounded in the literature on supply chain management and social capital theory (SCT).FindingsA series of propositions showed that relational governance leads to the formation of social capital under conditions of supply uncertainty, but is subject to opportunism when customer product demand is uncertain. By contrast, in conditions of high demand uncertainty, contractual governance is associated with social capital formation.Practical implicationsThe paper illustrates the need for managers to consider both the way in which their choice of governance mechanisms (contractual and relational) contributes to social capital, as well as highlighting the contingent nature of these mechanisms depending on the environmental context.Originality/valueThis paper is a novel contribution, applying SCT to the literature on supply chain management.

‘Staying in the Nationalist Bubble’

The success of any project is to achieve the goal, get a unique product and meet the needs of stakeholders. Scientific projects are not an exception to the general rule, but have their own specifics and characteristics, in particular: complexity. The implementation of scientific projects takes place in conditions of complete uncertainty in the development of science, technology and engineering. To ensure the success of scientific projects, integrated risk management of scientific projects in conditions of uncertainty and behavioral economics was proposed. In order to implement it, it is proposed to develop methods of integrated risk management of stakeholders of scientific projects in conditions of uncertainty and behavioral economics, which take into account the assessment of personnel risks, conflicts and behavioral economics, as well as the calculation of "toxicity". These methods will help increase the efficiency of stakeholder management of scientific projects by reducing the negative effects of personnel risks, conflicts and behavioral economics. This study proposes the stages of integrated risk management of stakeholders of scientific projects in conditions of uncertainty and behavioral economics, based on the conceptual model of integrated risk management of scientific project conflicts in behavioral economics and the corresponding mathematical model. In addition, schemes for the implementation of the method of integrated risk management of stakeholders of scientific projects and the method of calculating indicators of "toxicity" of stakeholders of scientific projects are presented. The application of these methods will increase the efficiency of stakeholder management of scientific projects at the stage of initiation in the process of forming a register of project participants. In addition, they will reduce the likelihood of personnel risks, conflicts and behavioral economics associated with stakeholders in the implementation of scientific projects and will ensure the success of their implementation, obtaining a quality product and meeting the needs of stakeholders.

Theories on social capital and on social entrepreneurship have mainly highlighted the attitude of social capital to generate enterprises and to foster good relations between third sector organizations and the public sector. This paper considers the social capital in a specific third sector enterprise; here, multi-stakeholder social cooperatives are seen, at the same time, as social capital results, creators and incubators. In the particular enterprises that identify themselves as community social enterprises, social capital, both as organizational and relational capital, is fundamental: SCEs arise from but also produce and disseminate social capital. This paper aims to improve the building of relational social capital and the refining of helpful relations drawn from other arenas, where they were created and from where they are sometimes transferred to other realities, where their role is carried on further (often working in non-profit, horizontally and vertically arranged groups, where they share resources and relations). To represent this perspective, we use a qualitative system dynamic approach in which social capital is measured using proxies. Cooperation of volunteers, customers, community leaders and third sector local organizations is fundamental to establish trust relations between public local authorities and cooperatives. These relations help the latter to maintain long-term contracts with local authorities as providers of social services and enable them to add innovation to their services, by developing experiences and management models and maintaining an interchange with civil servants regarding these matters. The long-term relations and the organizational relations linking SCEs and public organizations help to create and to renovate social capital. Thus, multi-stakeholder cooperatives originated via social capital developed in third sector organizations produce new social capital within the cooperatives themselves and between different cooperatives (entrepreneurial components of the third sector) and the public sector. In their entrepreneurial life, cooperatives have to contrast the "working drift," as a result of which only workers remain as members of the cooperative, while other stakeholders leave the organization. Those who are not workers in the cooperative are (stake)holders with "weak ties," who are nevertheless fundamental in making a worker's cooperative an authentic social multi-stakeholders cooperative. To maintain multi-stakeholder governance and the relations with third sector and civil society, social cooperatives have to reinforce participation and dialogue with civil society through ongoing efforts to include people that provide social proposals. We try to represent these processes in a system dynamic model applied to local cooperatives, measuring the social capital created by the social cooperative through proxies, such as number of volunteers and strong cooperation with public institutions. Using a reverse-engineering approach, we can individuate the determinants of the creation of social capital and thereby give support to governance that creates social capital.

The generation and re-generation of social capital and enterprises in multi-stakeholders social cooperative enterprises: a system dynamic approach

A Review of:
 Immroth, Barbara and W. Bernard Lukenbill. “Teacher-School Library Media Specialist 
 Collaboration through Social Marketing Strategies: An Information Behavior Study.” School Library Media Research 10 (2007). 22 April 2008 .
 
 Objective - The study attempted to apply the strategies of social marketing theory to collaboration between school librarians and teachers.
 
 Design - Based on the 1972 theory of social marketing by Zaltman, Kotler and Kaufman, a cohort of students in a graduate-level practicum established a collaborative unit with selected teachers within their school. In addition, two focus groups were conducted in alternate schools to gauge the overall attitudes of teachers toward collaboration with school librarians.
 
 Subjects - Students (student librarians) in a graduate-level certification class for Texas school librarians, and both teachers and librarians in host schools/districts for the graduate students’ practicum experiences
 
 Methods - Researchers used qualitative approaches, both case study and focus groups, to gather data about the collaborative interactions between teachers and school librarians. The interactions were designed using the social marketing AIDA model (Attention, Interest, Desire, and Action). Social marketing, based on models of commercial marketing, assumes that social goodwill is a motivator for establishing interactions between groups – or selling a service that is for the greater good. 
 
 Students in a graduate-level practicum were instructed to develop a strategy based on the AIDA model to elicit and carry out a collaborative unit with teachers in their host schools. They were given specific guidelines by the principal investigators that included:
 
 • Instructions for designing announcements, leaflets, and conferences as marketing strategies
 • Instructional unit designs for subject content and information literacy skills 
 • Incentive payments of $200 to be used for library resources as an incentive to collaborate.
 • The steps to engaging in the collaborative process
 • Procedural guidelines for taking field notes, unobtrusive observations and informal evidence.
 
 Summative evaluation was based on a reflective journaling exercise by both student librarian and teacher. Measurements and recordings were analysed using accepted case study methods.
 
 Main Results - Social Marketing Model
 
 The researchers evaluated the study in each of the four aspects of the Social Marketing Model.
 
 Attention (A) – Gaining Attention and Convincing.
 
 Efforts to gain attention through student choices of flyers to teachers were not successful. E-mail announcements were more effective, but it appeared that direct librarian-teacher contact was the most effective. The monetary incentive also did not appear to have an effect on response rate. Host librarians did make suggestions regarding the appropriateness of when and how to distribute the flyers in some cases. Researchers concluded that perhaps such a straightforward advertising approach did not fit in the established relationships, and may be a better choice for new librarians who are establishing their presence in schools.
 
 Interest (I) -- Promoting Interest in Services and/or Products
 
 Researchers noted that initial strategies did not promote interest in the field study project. Teachers cited time and test–related curriculum restraints, and viewed the project as an “extra” responsibility. The researchers note the need to establish the value of the collaborative instruction to long-term goals for both teachers and librarians. The focus groups showed more interest in collaboration, and an awareness of the value of librarians’ collaboration in promoting effective teaching and improving student achievement. 
 
 Desire (D) and Action (A) – Recognizing Values and Taking Action.
 
 Field test responses did not reflect desire on the part of teachers to collaborate with student librarians. Only two teachers responded directly to the advertisement. The offer of monetary incentive ($200 in library supplies) also did not appear to increase motivation of teachers to participate. 
 
 Results after the field test showed that overall, teachers gained an appreciation of the value of collaboration with school librarians, and indicated they would be open to future projects.
 
 Action Process themes of successful marketing campaigns were evident in the results of the study and benefits in being exposed to new resources and information approaches were reported by teachers.
 
 The concept of territoriality of teachers, and how much authority is shared with librarians in a collaborative setting, was an aspect not explored by the study, although indications from both the field test and the focus groups showed that the perception of the competency of the student librarian, and the teacher’s personal approach (structured vs. more relaxed) affected the release of teaching authority. 
 
 The librarian bringing ideas, concepts and directions to teachers can enhance collaboration. Opportunities to collaborate based on objectives of state-mandated exams to develop specific skills can also foster collaboration.
 
 
 Main Results - Collaborative Research
 
 This project reflected much of the earlier research in collaboration and added data to support the importance of the findings of the landmark Mettessich and Monsey (1972) study of collaboration. Shared interest, mutual trust, flexibility, adaptability and clear roles and policies were all reflected as needs in the current study. In addition, clear communication, shared goals and purposes and the need to have leadership from the school librarians in establishing collaborative interactions was reiterated. 
 
 Predictive behaviour of teachers toward collaboration included time and overall commitments to other teaching responsibilities. Confidence in the skills and knowledge of the librarian also affected the teachers’ willingness to collaborate. 
 
 Conclusions - Social exchange theory and community psychology were cited by the researchers as two theoretical concepts that affected the design and interpretation of data. They suggest that these two strategies may be most helpful in situations that have less than optimal environments for collaboration, where librarians have not been successful, or are not considered equal to the tasks.

El trabajo sostiene que el concepto de capital social (cs) debe ser entendido como un elemento que ayuda a resolver dilemas de acción colectiva. Por eso, el concepto es teórica y prácticamente útil en la medida en que se vincula con problemas de cooperación social. Para sostener tal afirmación, en primer lugar, se plantea el problema de la cooperación como un dilema entre interés individual —o estrategias de maximización— y la colaboración colectiva. Se sostiene que el cs confirma que, contrariamente a la teoría de juegos, cooperar sí es racional y conveniente. Enseguida, se establece cómo se concibe la vinculación entre cs y cooperación en Coleman, Putnam y Ostrom. Se destaca la generación de incentivos para superar dilemas de acción colectiva. Finalmente, se realiza una crítica a la crítica del cs para determinar sus posibilidades de generalizar la cooperación social.

The transition process in central and eastern Europe (CEE) had a profound effect on how individuals interact. Economic and social institutions have changed, requiring an adaptation process by individuals in the move toward a market economy. How each individual accesses, manipulates and uses their networks will determine the use of their social capital. Within CEE, there is a presumption of low levels of social capital. This paper was written as a conceptual framework for a research project entitled 'Integrated Development of Agricultural and Rural Institutions' (IDARI) in CEE countries. The paper exposes the emergence and maintenance of cooperative behaviour in light of rural restructuring and institutional change in CEE. A link exists between social capital formation and cooperation amongst individuals, as both concepts imply social interaction and the formation of trust. This paper questions the rationale of applying the contested 'western' concept of social capital to CEE countries. Social networks and use of those networks (social capital) is becoming more important in light of accession to the EU, particularly when opportunities within and access to rural and regional development programmes are dependent on existing networks. Social capital is seen as a dynamic entity, a form of institutional change, which leads to innovation in governance. Thus social capital provides a powerful explanatory tool for processes of institutional change.

The transition process in central and eastern Europe (CEE) had a profound effect on how individuals interact. Economic and social institutions have changed, requiring an adaptation process by individuals in the move toward a market economy. How each individual accesses, manipulates and uses their networks will determine the use of their social capital. Within CEE, there is a presumption of low levels of social capital. This paper was written as a conceptual framework for a research project entitled 'Integrated Development of Agricultural and Rural Institutions' (IDARI) in CEE countries. One element of the IDARI project is to understand the emergence and maintenance of cooperative behaviour in light of rural restructuring and institutional change in CEE. A link exists between social capital formation and cooperation amongst individuals, as both concepts imply social interaction and the formation of trust. This paper questions the rationale of applying the contested 'western' concept of social capital to CEE countries. It argues that although the concept was developed to understand processes within established democratic systems, it nevertheless is instrumental for analysing how trust is formed, and for understanding cooperation amongst individuals. As such, this framework reconciles literature from sociological and economic disciplines. Social networks and use of those networks (social capital) is becoming more important in light of accession to the EU, particularly when opportunities within and access to rural and regional development programmes are dependent on existing networks. Social capital is seen as a dynamic entity, a form of institutional change, which leads to innovation in the existing governance structures. Thus social capital provides a powerful explanatory tool for processes of institutional change.

Awakening social capital

Drawing on transaction cost economics (TCE), social capital theory and social exchange theory, this study develops a framework on how formal contracts, social capital, and social exchange, as governance mechanisms, impact on projects and relationship performance of large construction projects in developing countries with unstable environments. The framework is tested using survey data from 84 Iranian large construction projects. Partial Least Square (PLS) analyses indicate the joint contribution of social capital and social exchange to relationship performance. Despite this positive effect of social capital and social exchange, formal contracts deteriorate relationship performance echoing the substitute role of relational mechanisms to contractual mechanisms. Further, the study suggests that, while contractual arrangements do not have any significant effects on project performance in such unstable environments with ineffective legal systems, social capital may be the sole contributor to achieving project objectives. The study paves the road for more research on governance issues in various contexts with special attention to cultural, political and economic differences.

Purpose In this study, we drew on the theories of social exchange and social learning and hypothesized that the online social capital (SC) and offline SC of social networking affect the online self-disclosure (OSD) of individuals through social self-efficacy (SSE). Design/methodology/approach After retrieving 514 valid questionnaires, we used structural equation modeling to analyze the data. Findings The results indicated that the users’ SSE affected their OSD, and that both online and offline bridging and bonding SC increased their SSE. However, online bonding SC directly affected their OSD, whereas online bridging SC did not considerably affect their OSD. Given these findings, we presented both theoretical and practical implications to elucidate SSE and OSD behavior from the perspective of online and offline bridging and bonding SC. Originality/value In this study, we drew on theories of social exchange and social learning to examine the effects of online and offline bridging and bonding SC on users’ SSE and OSD on SNSs. Given the importance of SC and SSE in social relationships and the effects of OSD on SNSs, our goal was to provide SNS marketers with a thorough understanding of how to facilitate SSE and OSD from the perspective of online and offline bridging and bonding SC.

BackgroundImplementation science has a history of drawing from other fields to advance its science, yet understanding how approaches from marketing might enhance the field remains a largely untapped area of theoretical and methodological potential. Social marketing (i.e., applying commercial marketing to solve social or health problems) is a branch of marketing that shares many conceptual features with implementation science (e.g., behaviour change), but remains an unrealized opportunity for synergy. This review aimed to 1) describe studies that have tested social marketing interventions in controlled designs; 2) describe these interventions including their context, mechanism, and outcome; and 3) propose social marketing approaches that might be usefully applied to implementation science.MethodsThis scoping review, with a team consensus discussion, followed JBI (formerly the Joanna Briggs Institute) methodological guidance and included a team of researchers and practitioners in implementation, marketing, and social marketing. Twelve databases were searched. Studies were included that 1) utilized a randomized or non-randomized controlled intervention design; and 2) tested a social marketing intervention as defined by five essential social marketing criteria. Two reviewers independently completed all screening and extraction. Variables extracted included intervention details per social marketing criteria and the intervention’s context, mechanism, and outcome. Team consensus discussions of the scoping review results were used to determine approaches that might be usefully applied more broadly across implementation science.ResultsScreening of 4,867 citations yielded 28 included studies published from 1999–2023. All topics were from the health field and included nutrition (13, 46%), sexual health/family planning (6, 21%), physical activity (3, 11%), child safety (1, 4%), cancer screening (1, 4%), fall prevention (1, 4%), worksite safety (1, 4%), sanitation (1, 4%), and substance abuse (1, 4%). Novel theories identified included ‘Exchange Theory’ and ‘Consumer Information Processing Model’. Proposed approaches to consider for application included: leverage emotions; design for appeal; consider what your audience values; understand the price; understand the place; emphasize competitive advantage; and use branding.ConclusionsThis review examined the application of social marketing theories and approaches to implementation science. Applying social marketing approaches could invigorate novel and creative thinking in implementation science.RegistrationOpen Science Framework Registration link: osf.io/6q834.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13012-025-01458-z.