Navigating the intersection of global trade and climate action: assessing the compatibility of CORSIA with international trade law for sustainable aviation

The Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation (CORSIA) requires airlines to offset their greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions above 2019 levels by either buying carbon offsets or using Sustainable Aviation Fuels (SAFs). These are drop-in jet fuels made from biomass or other renewable resources that reduce GHG emissions by at least 10 % compared to kerosene and meet certain sustainability criteria. This study assesses the direct land use change (DLUC) emissions of SAF, i.e., GHG emissions from on-site land conversion from previous uses (excluding primary forests, peatlands, wetlands, and protected and biodiversity-rich areas) into alternative feedstocks, considering spatial variability in global yields and land carbon stocks. The results provide DLUC values and carbon payback times at 0.5-degree resolution for six SAF pathways, with and without irrigation and a medium-input intensity, according to CORSIA sustainability criteria. When excluding CORSIA non-compliant areas, soybean SAF shows the highest mean DLUC factor (31.9 ± 20.7 gCO2/MJ), followed by reed canary grass and maize. Jatropha SAF shows the lowest mean DLUC factor (3.6 ± 31.4 gCO2/MJ), followed by miscanthus and switchgrass. The latter feedstocks show potential for reducing GHG emissions over large areas but with relatively greater variability. Country-average DLUC values are higher than accepted ILUC ones for all pathways except for maize. To ensure the GHG benefits of CORSIA, feedstocks must be produced in areas where not only carbon stocks are relatively low but also where attainable yields are sufficiently high. The results help identify locations where the combination of these two factors may be favourable for low-DLUC SAF production. Irrigated miscanthus offers the highest SAF production potential (2.75 EJ globally) if grown on CORSIA-compliant cropland and grassland areas, accounting for ∼1/5 of the total kerosene used in 2019. Quantifying other environmental impacts of SAFs is desirable to understand sustainability trade-offs and financial constraints that may further limit production potentials.

The United States, spurred in part by international developments, is expanding its law and policy to incentivize the use of sustainable aviation fuels. While the U.S. has agreed to participate in the International Civil Aviation Organization’s (ICAO’s) Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation (CORSIA), it has only recently adopted federal rules that define greenhouse gas emission reduction standards for certain classes of airplanes (effective January 2021). However, such standards focus on engine efficiency rather than the fuel burned. For sustainable aviation fuels, the U.S. continues to rely on voluntary programs at a federal, state, and regional level. The federal Renewable Fuel Standard program allows producers to opt in. In addition, states have started to allow sustainable aviation fuel producers to “opt in” to their programs; this includes California’s Low Carbon Fuel Standard, Oregon’s Clean Fuels Program, and Washington’s newly adopted Clean Fuels Program. Other states are also starting to consider such programs. Elsewhere, states like Hawaii are starting to support SAF production in other ways, including through tax mechanisms. In addition, regional and private efforts to adopt and/or promote sustainable aviation fuels are underway. This piecemeal approach—due in part to the lack of cohesive U.S. federal policy—stands in contrast to the European Union’s Renewable Energy Directive and Emissions Trading System, and adoption of policies by European countries. Because of aviation’s international nature, tracking what is happening in Europe matters greatly for U.S. carriers. As the U.S. works to meet its international obligations through CORSIA, finding a way forward with sustainable aviation fuel in the United States may depend on a more defined federal policy. Actions taken by both the EU and European countries offers some guidance for actions that could be taken by the U.S. Even in the absence of more defined measures, better tracking of voluntary measures is a critical step.

Life Cycle emission of selected Sustainable Aviation Fuels – A review

Despite contributing only 2.5% of global anthropogenic CO2 emissions, aviation faces intense scrutiny due to its significant challenges in decarbonization. The industry's dependence on energy-dense fossil fuels and the current technological constraints of alternative energy sources make it particularly difficult to reduce its carbon footprint. As part of global efforts to meet international climate goals, such as the Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation (CORSIA), aviation has become the center of attention in the climate change mitigation effort. Industry stakeholders are under increasing pressure to adopt sustainable practices that can reduce environmental impact. Among these solutions, Sustainable Aviation Fuels (SAF) have emerged as one of the most promising, offering the potential for substantial emission reductions without requiring major technological modifications to aircraft. This paper examines SWISS International Airline's initiatives to implement Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF) as a component of its comprehensive sustainability strategy. With this case study, this research analyzes the integration of SAF into the airline's operations and assesses the challenges and opportunities encountered during the process. The methodology employs qualitative research techniques, combining primary data obtained from interviews with corporate responsibility executives with secondary data from corporate sustainability reports to provide an in-depth understanding of the adoption of SAF. Being a contemporary and under-researched phenomenon, qualitative and exploratory research was employed to facilitate a comprehensive analysis of the complexities inherent in the adoption of SAF. While focusing primarily on SWISS, the research examines the broader implications of SAF implementation within the aviation sector. It investigates the tecno- economic, environmental, and regulatory factors that influence the viability and scalability of SAF, as well as the role of market-based mechanisms, such as emissions trading systems. The findings of this innovative study provide insights how SAF can contribute to mitigating the aviation industry's carbon footprint and enhance its sustainability, thus establishing a foundation for the future of sustainable aviation.

The net zero emission objective requires urgent carbon reduction from the aviation sector. Sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) is deemed to reduce aviation’s greenhouse gas emissions in the short to medium term due to civil aircraft’s inherent characteristics. Though SAF is considered a low-carbon aviation fuel, its carbon footprint varies substantially depending on raw materials, techniques, regions, etc. Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation (CORSIA) has published SAF’s default carbon footprint values; however, the findings only encompass a limited range of raw material categories, techniques, and regions, potentially compromising the evaluation accuracy. We used a thorough review of the literature to reveal the status quo of SAF and its carbon footprint. First, we constructed the process flow for SAF production from different raw materials, creating a network of integrated processes. Next, we reviewed the SAF’s carbon footprint from 194 cases across five continents. At the regional level, the average carbon footprint of SAF production was lower in South and North America. For raw materials, oil-produced SAF had the lowest carbon footprint. For techniques, the catalytic hydrothermolysis jet route has the smallest carbon footprint. Meanwhile, the results demonstrate a significant divergence between the SAF’s carbon footprint made from different raw materials using the same technique. Comparing the literature values with those from CORSIA underscores the need to include more studies in the calculation. The study finally summarizes the factors that may influence the results accuracy and highlights more environmental and socioeconomic dimensions that should be considered in future research.

Since fast-growing emissions from the aviation sector have become a major contributor to climate change, global efforts have been undertaken to reduce them effectively. The European Union Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) and the Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation (CORSIA) are two existing market-based measures (MBMs) for addressing aviation emissions, whose implementation has been affected by the Coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. This article aims to examine challenges that the pandemic has posed on both systems by assessing the policy options for revising the EU ETS provisions on aviation, as well as the political debates regarding amendment to the CORSIA design in June 2020. Key policy insights From the environmental, economic and international perspectives, none of the six policy options proposed in the Inception Impact Assessment regarding future implementation of CORSIA alongside the EU ETS is optimal to achieving the EU’s multiple goals in revising its ETS. This article recommends the adoption of a hybrid option, which would help maintain international intra-EU/European Free Trade Association (EFTA) flights under the EU ETS scope to achieve EU climate targets and at the same time still integrate some features of CORSIA’s design in implementation. Concerning the reduction of free allowances for aviation, the swift phase-out option should be considered in conjunction with plans to develop sustainable aviation fuels (SAFs). While long-term effects of the pandemic on the effectiveness of CORSIA remain to be seen, its immediate impacts can be noticed in the weakening of this scheme’s credibility and stability in implementation.

Blockchain solutions for carbon markets are nearing maturity

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">Begun in 2016, the Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation (CORSIA) was developed and agreed by International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) 191 Member States, while the Airport Carbon Accreditation was developed by the Airports, Council International Europe as a carbon management system and certification. The aviation industry has its own offsetting scheme to measure aviation emissions and carbon offsetting and it has become the first industry sector which leads the world making commitments to reduce emissions. CORSIA and the Airport Carbon Accreditation are programs that impose carbon management obligations on the aviation industry. The training product to be presented, will clarify for the first time how to go beyond mere compliance and exceed the carbon reduction requirements of these instruments by achieving carbon neutrality in operations, to decrease costs, boost revenue, productivity and customer experience for airlines, airports and ground service providers. The methodology that will be explained for achieving carbon neutrality involves gains in operational efficiency and the use of sustainable aviation fuels (SAFs) to reduce carbon in operations, and investment in reforestation and conservation projects (forest carbon credits) to offset emissions. Innovative practices and benefits of communicating with customers and the public about carbon neutral goals, milestones and achievements will be shared and explained. This training will describe how carbon neutrality when done right decreases operational costs, reduces health and safety risks, lowers environmental risks, and generates new revenue and sales through brand trust, customer loyalty and revenue science. For the very first time, tools, technologies and solutions on how to transition to a low-cost, high-revenue producing carbon neutral operations model for airlines, airports and ground service providers will be presented.</div></div>

International initiatives such as the Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation (CORSIA) have set goals for the complete de-carbonization of international aviation in this century. It motivated increasing numbers of Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF) research projects. The objective of this paper is to provide an overview on SAF research to point one to its foundations and recent advances. Data from the Web of Science database was collected and investigated. Important papers, cooperation networks, textual, productivity and trends analysis is provided. The most productive countries are in the global north, led by the United States and China. Big developing nations such as India and Brazil need to improve. The future of a sustainable aviation sector is heading in the direction of replacement of conventional jet fuel by synthetic hydrocarbon fuels by the end of the century. But there are still doubts about its viability both from the environmental and practical aspects, as there are concerns about feedstock availability and life cycle emissions. Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis, Alcohol-to-Jet and Hydroprocessing of Esters and Fatty Acids appear as the main SAF technologies for drop-in replacements. Longer term prospects are for the development of more efficient aircraft designed for renewables and non-hydrocarbon energy sources.

Options for improving the EU Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS) for aviation

Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF) is widely viewed as a near- to mid-term pillar of aviation decarbonization because it can function as a drop-in fuel within existing aircraft and fueling infrastructure, while enabling substantial life-cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) reductions when produced from low-carbon feedstocks and robustly accounted for. Under ICAO’s Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation (CORSIA), life-cycle accounting, including default and actual life-cycle emissions values, has become central to how airlines can claim emissions reductions from eligible fuels. Recent policy-relevant developments highlight Palm Oil Mill Effluent (POME)—a residue stream from crude palm oil (CPO) processing—as a potentially important SAF feedstock, particularly when POME oil is recovered and converted via hydroprocessed esters and fatty acids (HEFA). Drawing on a qualitative literature review (QLR) and policy-document triangulation, this paper synthesizes the opportunity and challenge landscape for POME-based SAF in supporting global aviation decarbonization. The thematic findings emphasize (i) carbon-accounting advantages linked to residue classification and low default life-cycle emissions factors, (ii) Indonesia’s strategic potential as a large-scale residue-based SAF supplier, and (iii) governance requirements for credibility, including traceability, sustainability certification, and fuel accounting systems. Key challenges include supply-chain variability, measurement–reporting–verification (MRV) integrity risks, infrastructure and conversion constraints, and policy coordination across domestic allocation and trade. The paper concludes with policy recommendations focused on building trustworthy traceability and accounting architecture and aligning incentives to scale residue-based SAF without undermining broader sustainability expectations.

International civil aviation strives to significantly reduce its greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and the use of Sustainable Aviation Fuels (SAF) is an alternative for such purpose. However, for an alternative fuel to be considered SAF, some conditions must be met, and production must be certified for sustainability. This paper presents an assessment of the necessary conditions for the sustainable production of these biofuels in Brazil. It is based on a geospatial publicly available database (SAFmaps) that was built with the aim of providing information to stakeholders who would be interested in the production of SAF. The geographic scope corresponds to an area that is about half of the country. The case studies reported in this paper are related to four crop-based feedstocks (eucalyptus, soybean, sugarcane, and corn), which could be used for SAF production, according to three certified routes (FT, HEFA, and ATJ) (Fischer–Tropsch, Hydroprocessed Esters and Fatty Acids and Alcohol to Jet); in total, six potential production sites were assessed. For each crop, the detailed assessment is based on estimates of suitability for biomass production, yields, and costs. The assumptions made allowed us to explicitly analyse the risk of deforestation (production could only occur with displacement of pastures) and the necessary preservation of sensitive biomes and of legally protected areas, in addition to observing the restrictive conditions imposed by CORSIA (Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation). To reduce GHG emissions, transporting biomass over long distances was assumed to be only by rail or pipeline. In addition, we address alternatives to minimise the risks associated with induced land-use change (iLUC) and to reduce impacts on the landscape. The results show that the production of SAF through the ATJ route, using ethanol produced from sugarcane and corn, requires less land. Economic assessment was outside the scope of this paper.

The aviation industry is a significant contributor to global greenhouse gas emissions, posing a challenge to sustainable development goals. This chapter discusses the use of regulations and policies in promoting sustainability in aviation marketing, including international agreements, government policies, and industry standards. From highly technologically intensive and novel methods such as biofuels, including sustainable aviation fuels (SAFs), to broad and long-standing approaches, including carbon offsetting, and stakeholder-financed market-based measures, including the EU Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) and the International Civil Aviation Organization's (ICAO) Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation (CORSIA). The chapter also focuses on the opportunities for technological change and partnership in reaching the goals of carbon neutrality by 2050. Thus, this chapter presents an understanding of the current state and trends in sustainable aviation marketing based on the evaluation of these policies and the definition of effective practices

Governments perceive UN human rights conventions and the law of the World Trade Organization (WTO) as separate legal regimes. WTO jurisprudence, by contrast, interprets WTO rules as parts of international law and may soon be confronted with legal claims that WTO obligations are to be construed with due regard to the human rights obligations of WTO members. The diverse constitutional traditions of WTO members, and their political opposition to linking WTO law to human rights, make it unlikely that WTO members will respond to the UN proposals for a ‘human rights approach to trade’ by adopting a WTO Declaration clarifying that WTO rules are flexible enough to be interpreted and applied in conformity with the human rights obligations of WTO members (section 1). Following the invitation by WTO Director-General Pascal Lamy to form ‘cosmopolitan constituencies’ in support of global public goods (like a rules-based world trading system), this article makes concrete proposals for the initiative by the International Law Association (ILA) to elaborate an ILA Declaration clarifying the complex interrelationships between trade law, human rights and WTO jurisprudence (section 2). As many human rights arguments presented in trade disputes in the EC Court and in the European Court of Human Rights could likewise be raised in WTO dispute settlement proceedings, the article examines whether the ‘constitutional methodologies’ applied by European courts offer lessons for further ‘constitutionalizing’ trade governance in the WTO in conformity with the human rights obligations of all WTO members.

The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey (PANYNJ) sustainability commitment is to meet the goals set by the Paris Agreement, with an interim greenhouse gas reduction target of 35% by 2025 and 80% by 2050. PANYNJ is seeking sustainable solutions to reduce carbon emissions for all public forms of transportation, including aviation. Similarly, the global aviation industry adopted the Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation (CORSIA), which seeks to cap net carbon dioxide (CO2) aviation emissions at 2020 levels through 2035. Industry has also set a goal of reducing CO2 emissions by 50% compared to 2005 levels by 2050. Sustainable aviation fuel (SAF), made from non-petroleum feedstocks, is a near-term alternative fuel that reduces emissions from air transportation. The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) conducted a resource assessment and a techno-economic analysis to identify the potential for production in the port district. Although SAF could be sourced from other areas of the United States or imported, an evaluation of local production was conducted due to the potential positive impacts of a circular economy by converting local waste feedstocks into SAF for use at nearby airports. The study found that the highest volumes of feedstock nearby were municipal solid waste and woody biomass. SAF must be blended with Jet A up to certain percent determined by ASTM International fuel quality standards prior to use in aircraft. SAF from a stand-alone facility could be delivered by barge, rail, or truck to a Linden, New Jersey based terminal for blending with Jet A or it could be blended in the Gulf region and shipped via the Colonial pipeline to one of the terminals. The investment will take place at the terminal(s) to accommodate SAF/Jet A blends and it will be business as usual for the airports in how they receive fuel and distribute it to aircraft.