National Identity and Architectural Expression

This thesis is concerned with the ways in which language policy, planning and practices shape national and social identity. The research was conducted in the young nation of Timor-Leste, which achieved independence in 2002 after 24 years of illegal occupation by Indonesia. The Constitution of the new republic declared the former colonial language, Portuguese, and the indigenous lingua franca, Tetum, to be co-official languages. English and Indonesian were allocated the special status of working languages. The Constitution also allocated the 15 endogenous languages the status of national languages, to be protected and developed by the State. The thesis is structured around three classic language problems for developing nations, (i) dealing with the legacies of colonialism, (ii) reconstructing national identity, and (iii) managing the language ecology. The thesis is theoretically grounded in the ecology of language paradigm, which is founded on the assumption that languages exist and work in ecological relation to each other. Using multiple methods within an ethnographic design, the thesis provides a qualitative, holistic description and analysis of language policy, planning and practices in their cultural context. Taking a dualistic approach, the thesis studies language policy discourses at the macro (state) level and the micro (community) level. A sociolinguistic profile identifies the features of the language ecology; an historical study highlights the symbolic violence to the East Timorese habitus as a result of four distinct periods of language policy, planning and practice, the consequence of which was the fragmentation and hybridisation of identities. A qualitative analysis of contemporary language policy development discusses the issues and implications of the current trajectory for language policy-making, planning and use. The evolutionary study design culminates in a grounded theory analysis of data collected from 78 participants in semi-structured interviews and focus groups, in an effort to understand the relationships between language dispositions, language policy, and national and social identity. The narratives in the participant discourses were compared to those of official language policy. A key finding is that, while older participants in the research were willing to accept Portuguese as the language of national and international identity, younger participants tended to acknowledge a role for Portuguese as the primary source language for modernising and enriching Tetum and as a language of international communication. The participants were divided in their attitudes towards Indonesian. Older participants saw it as the language of the invader while many younger ones saw it as just another way to communicate. Whilst interest in English was high, it had little capital for the participants as a language of identity. In contrast, across much of the sample, there was deep and enduring loyalty to Tetum as the symbol of national unity and identity. However, negative, disparaging attitudes towards Tetum and doubts about its readiness to function as an official language were also elicited from certain participants. The thesis concludes that this has negative implications for reconstructing social and national identity and for achieving true parity between Portuguese and Tetum in the ecology. The data indicate that linguistic identities in Timor-Leste are multiple, situated and contested, particularly amongst the younger participants. However, the data also show that, in spite of these contestations, there is higher congruity between official and popular language policy discourses than might be expected, given the negative reporting East Timorese language policy has received in the Australian media. The thesis concludes that a more socially accommodating conception of identity would imply stronger efforts to promote respect for Tetum as the language of national unity and identity. This involves promoting it as a language fit for schooling and use in high-status domains. A socially accommodating approach to language planning would also imply a substantive commitment to indigenising literacy and promoting the national languages as symbols of local identity. The thesis presents the case for a consistently maintenance-oriented promotion policy approach that moves beyond mere tolerance and symbolic recognition of the endogenous languages. A language-as-resource ideology and a bottom-up approach to language planning which grants agency and voice to traditionally less powerful social actors and communities are advocated as essential to policy success. This is the first doctoral study of language policy, planning and practices in Timor-Leste. The methodological significance of the thesis lies in its respecification and integration of analytical tools from critical discourse analysis and ethnographic approaches in order to understand the effects of language shift and reform on language communities and their speakers. The theoretical significance of the thesis lies principally in its contribution to a theory of ecological language policy and planning in producing a set of principles for sustainable ecological language management.

The purpose of the study is a comprehensive analysis of the role of 21st century fine art in the processes of formation, expression and preservation of cultural identity in Ukraine and the world against the background of global socio-cultural challenges. The methodology is based on a comprehensive interdisciplinary approach that combines theoretical analysis, historical and cultural context, as well as analysis of visual practices of contemporary fine art. Special attention is paid to critical analysis of works by Ukrainian and international artists who, through their artistic practices, represent key cultural codes and traditions. The method of comparative analysis helps to identify the features of local and global trends in the construction of identity in 21st century fine art. The influence of socio-political and technological transformations on artistic means of expression of identity is also taken into account. The scientific novelty lies in the comprehensive study of the mechanisms of reflection and construction of cultural identity in the visual arts of the 21st century using the works of contemporary Ukrainian and international artists as an example. The role of modern visual strategies, in particular digital technologies, in the preservation, transformation and active representation of national cultural identity in the context of globalization is determined. Conclusions. The article confirms that the visual arts of the 21st century serve as an important tool for reflecting and constructing cultural identity in the context of globalisation. The proposed author’s methodological model provides a comprehensive analysis of the relationship between local cultural codes and global artistic trends. Particular attention is paid to the role of digital visual strategies in the preservation and transformation of national identity. The results of the study expand the theoretical foundations of the study of cultural identity in the visual arts and may be useful for further scientific research and practical activities in the field of culture and art.

Introduction Throughout the early and mid-twentieth century, cadet training was a feature of many secondary schools and educational establishments across Australia, with countless young men between the ages of 14 and 18 years of age undergoing military training, ostensibly in preparation for service in Australia’s armed forces upon their coming of age. Unlike earlier in the century, when cadet training was mandatory for all males within the relevant age range, during the Second World War cadet detachments could only be formed and maintained by secondary schools for pupils attending those schools. Additionally, the Australian Army provided so little financial support to school cadet detachments during the conflict that schools had to rely on the parents of their pupils to purchase their sons’ not inexpensive cadet uniforms, with a result that only a limited number of schools could afford to maintain a cadet detachment, and almost every schools that could do so made enrolment in their detachments voluntary for their pupils. Counterbalancing these material obstacles, however, was the threat of the ongoing conflict and the demands for trained soldiers both overseas and within Australia, which resulted in school cadet training becoming increasingly popular between 1939 and 1945, with many schools across Australia either establishing new cadet detachments or expanding their existing cadet detachments in order to contribute to their nation’s war effort. Not only did the Second World War increase the number of cadet detachments among educational establishments, but cadet training became more diverse and varied both within and between schools. Owing to their preoccupation with maintaining both the Australian Imperial Force and a defence force against a potential invasion of Australia, the Australian Army’s supervision of and contribution to cadet training became more sporadic than it had been in peacetime. As a result, school headmasters became increasingly powerful in their discretion to direct the cadet training that went on at their schools, with the Australian Army providing little to no input to or supervision of the day-to-day training at the myriad of cadet detachments across the nation. This state of affairs allowed schools, and the educators who ran them, an unprecedented amount of freedom to enact their own idealised version of military training through their cadet detachments, resulting in a diverse range of training syllabi, organisational practices, and uniforms. Unlike in other nations such as New Zealand, Australian schools’ cadet uniforms were not issued by the Australian Army, but instead were designed and purchased by the individual cadet detachments, with the Australian Army only providing official recognition and partial funding for the designs. Under this system, Australian schools designed a diverse range of uniforms for their cadet detachments, tailoring them to suit their individual conceptions of what cadet training should contain and how a cadet detachment should appear. This resulted in cadet detachments clad in uniforms that reflected the ideals of the schools to which they were attached, with the training practices and identities of a school reflected in the design of its cadet uniform. This article will examine two prevalent influences behind the design of Australian school cadet uniforms during the Second World War – the competing prioritisation of smartness and practicality, and the range of identities and loyalties which schools attempted to inculcate in their pupils. In the process, it will be argued that these variations in cadet uniform designs reflect the diversity of practices and ideology within male secondary education in Australia during the 1940s. Uniforms for Purpose Despite the limitations imposed by wartime shortages, a school’s priorities for their cadet training could still be expressed through their design of uniforms. For many, the range of priorities can be summarised as a split between smartness and toughness. Some establishments designed their cadet uniforms on traditional ideals of rigid sartorial orderliness, tailoring them to be pleasing to the eye when paraded in public. Others disregarded smartness in favour of hard-wearing uniforms more suited to rigorous physical training under a variety of climactic conditions, emphasising comfort and durability above appearance. Schools did not openly state that their choice of uniform was motivated by a desire to have their cadets appear impressive on the parade ground. However, many voiced their praise for their cadet detachments’ appearances in public parades. One example of this can be found in the June 1940 edition of Terrace, the magazine of Christian Brothers’ College Gregory Terrace, in which the cadet training column finished by proudly declaring that “the appearance of the cadets and their military bearing called forth expressions of praise from all who saw them marching in the Corpus Christi procession at NC” (“G.T. Corps Jottings” 5). Similar evidence of a school’s prioritisation of smartness and presentability in their cadet training can also be found in numerous contemporary descriptions of cadet training by the cadets themselves. One anonymous pupil at Sydney Church of England Grammar School described the hardships that the school’s cadets faced in maintaining their uniforms – a khaki combination of woollen slouch hat, tunic with brass buttons, brown leather ‘Sam Browne’ belt and trousers with a blue stripe down each leg. In a lengthy poem describing many aspects of school life, the pupil’s ‘Song of Shore’ described how “of each cadet the heart is set on being clean and smart; A fleck of dust, a speck of rust, will break his sergeant's heart” (‘A Song of Shore’ 131). These demands for cleanliness and smartness weighed heavily on a cadet, with the author lamenting how “he cleans his boots, he cleans his belt, he cleans his bits of brass: his Brasso goes to chapel and his Kiwi into class; but still they say, ‘Put it away! To Friday drill you go!’ And button-sticks in period six are dangerous things to show” (‘A Song of Shore’ 131). Given that this context of uniform maintenance is the only description of cadet training in this poem, the emphasis placed on sartorial orderliness at schools such as Sydney Church of England Grammar School was clearly strong enough to eclipse all other aspects of training in the eyes of those subjected to it. Uniforms designed to visually impress, however, often wore out quite quickly under the harsh conditions of cadet training. One cadet at Geelong College noted how after an afternoon of instruction on the school oval in “a comfortable spot in the rain and wind … my well-tailored uniform is sopping with either sweat or rain according to the consistent weather of these parts. My chin-strap has lost all its flavour and generally I feel most inefficient” (“Chank” 31). The short life of stylistically-prioritised uniforms was often exacerbated by the difficulty of obtaining replacement items of clothing under wartime conditions. In 1941, the cadet uniforms of Hale School, Western Australia – presented in fig. 1 and consisting of slouch hat, woollen khaki tunic, Khaki drill breeches and tall leather gaiters – had been reduced in number and quality to such an extent that one boy described the process of selecting uniforms at the beginning of each year as “scramble day”, when, “after trying on various clothing you begin to wonder how many deformed people were in the corps before you” (“Lance-Corporal” 96). The cadet elaborated by lamented how “pick[ing] out the right hat is like winning the Charities, and all you can do is to hope for the best next year” (“Lance-Corporal” 96), and “on being issued with your hat badge you will say confidently, ‘Well, at least this must fit.’ But don't be optimistic; it is sure to have the clip missing” (“Lance-Corporal” 97). The shortage of serviceable uniforms became so acute that by 1943 the annual ‘Cadet Notes’ article in the school’s magazine The Cygnet announced that “it would be greatly appreciated if Old Boys who have any part of a uniform, would make it available” (“Cadets” Cygnet 20). This sentiment was echoed the following year by an anonymous cadet’s cartoon (fig. 2), highlighting the deplorable state of the school’s cadet uniforms after so many years of use, with frayed hems, baggy seams, and, most significantly, a severe shortage of sizes which fitted the average cadet (“Uniforms for ‘B’ Company” 74). This, when compared with the formal photographs of cadets published by the school in an earlier edition of the Cygnet, seen in fig. 1, gives a clear indication of the disparity between the image that schools intended to project and the and that which cadets perceived. Fig. 1: Hale School cadet uniforms as presented by the school in 1939 (“Officers and N.C.Os.” 55) Fig. 2: Hale School cadet uniforms as perceived by a cadet in 1944 (“Uniforms for ‘B’ Company” 74) For many schools, however, the ideal cadet uniform was simple, easily-maintained and durable, often drawing inspiration from contemporary, rather than traditional, military uniforms. When designing a uniform for their newly-established cadet detachment in 1939, Brisbane Boys’ College stated categorically that “the first consideration was smartness” and that “the preservation of that smartness will be the duty of every cadet” (“Cadet Corps” 41). However, while other schools chose stiff and heavy woollen cadet uniforms, the committee appointed by the College to decide on a uniform opted for a light combination of felt hat, khaki drill jacket, and shorts, “similar in design to that of the Darwin Mobile Force”, a new Australian Army formation created the previous year intended to defend Australia’s northern coastline from invasion, “which looked so smart when that force marched through the city early in the year” (“Cadet Corps” 41-42). When further explaining their choice, the College

This study examines the ways Omar S. Castañeda’s Remembering to Say ‘Mouth’ or ‘Face’ (1993) deconstructs national and hyphenated identities. It argues that rooting these short stories within the Popol Wuj’s narrative structure allows for the construction of different historical references and cultural genealogies, which are not solely based on national identities or histories. This is evident in the second section entitled “Crossing the Border,” which blends myths from the Popol Wuj with the characters, contemporary historical contexts in the United States and Guatemala. At the same time, the stories illustrate the protagonists’ multiple displacements, but also their links to the histories and cultures of indigenous, specifically Maya, peoples in the Americas. Consequently these displacements and connections result in the search as well as the creation of alternative narratives of belonging that are attuned to the characters’ multiple embodied subjectivities and positionalities. By grounding the protagonists’ cultural genealogies within Maya mythical and historical frameworks that emphasize difference, Castañeda’s text highlights the multiple identities of Guatemalans in that country and the diaspora.

Purpose Seeking meaning in architecture has been an ever-present strand in architectural theory, whose reverberations sound in critical considerations of the complicated interdependence among matter, form and meaning conveyed in designed environments. The interdependence is especially evident in public architecture, where buildings pass beyond functional significance to become bodily expressions of administration, culture and national identity. Of these, parliamentary buildings hold a particular significance in their designs since they reflect the political aspirations, ideological models and social values of their eras. Designed as a vocabulary of governance, these buildings articulate the prevailing political ethos, encoding meaning through their materiality, spatial composition and architectural language. This study explores the semiotic dimensions of parliamentary buildings across three distinct geographical contexts, analyzing how their design is crafted to convey meaning. Design/methodology/approach This study examines the semiotic dimensions of three parliamentary buildings, analyzing how architectural elements – form, materiality, ormamentation and spatial arrangement – encode and communicate meaning. Using semiology as a methodological framework, it explores three parliament buildings in distinct geographies, historical contexts and political systems: the Scottish Parliament (Deconstructivism), the Welsh Parliament (Contemporary Architecture) and the Turkish Parliament (Neo-Classicism). Findings The findings reveal that architectural signs and their signifiers are given meaning according to their respective eras' ideological foundations and stylistic preferences. Certain elements, such as the geography and historical context of a building, are semiotically reflected through material choices, serving as tangible connections to place and heritage. In contrast, architectural styles and their symbolic meanings are more explicitly influenced by the prevailing ideologies and architectural trends of the time, shaping the symbolic significance and interpretation of architectural signs. Originality/value This study provides a novel framework for understanding how ideological and political identities are embedded in built environments by applying semiotic theory to three parliament buildings in different geographies with different stylistic approaches. It offers insights into the constructed relationship between architecture and governance, contributing to architectural theory and practice.

The answer to the question of national architectural identity requires continuous strategies and efforts from various parties covering various architectural typologies. This study focuses on the development of a criterion for the application of architectural element design with national identity characters to skyscrapers that are classified as tall buildings above 150 metres. The PETRONAS Twin Towers building in Kuala Lumpur was selected as a study sample in the development of the criteria for the application of the national architectural identity element using the case study method. There are two research objectives to be achieved through this study, namely to identify the universal value in the formation of national architectural identity and to propose the value of the identity as one of the criteria in the application of national identity elements in the design of skyscrapers in Malaysia. This research debate is carried out based on nine basic principles of vernacular architectural identity formation. The principle is a basic criterion in the formation of the identity of early civilization at the global level that reflect the concept of the nation-state. The nine principles in question are religion, architectural language, culture, economy, architectural evolution, geography, politics, art and technology. The findings of this study are in the form of a table of criteria for the application of national architectural identity elements based on five design development factors obtained from the study building. The intended factors are site and design, construction methods, symbols, material surfaces and the public realm.

Countries that have succeeded in establishing their national identity enjoy political and institutional stability and national unity, which makes them less vulnerable to social problems that may affect the legitimacy of the state and its political system; and when any problems occur, they are dealt with within an institutional and legal framework, which contributes to avoiding social crises between the components of society. The issue of strengthening national identity is one of the fundamental issues that require an accurate diagnosis and understanding of its nature, and then determining the appropriate ways to strengthen it; national identity is a fundamental pillar in building the state, as it contributes to strengthening the ability to confront the crises that society is going through; therefore, our interest in the issue of national identity in Iraq stems from the importance of crystallizing and establishing it as a basic condition for the success of political stability in the country and the transition towards democracy. Without that, it becomes difficult to talk about effective and successful political stability. Identity represents more than a word that unites Iraqis, and works to build their state on national foundations free from any sectarian, religious, national or other conflict, and made their adherence to their Iraqi national identity include the material and symbolic relationships that connect and unite individuals and groups while they are in a state of conflict and distinguish them as one group against another group that usurped their lands and rights. Hence, the main question in the research appears as: What is the impact of political crises on national identity and their repercussions on political stability? The study has multiple methods for collecting information, including: observation, collecting books and special studies, articles, periodicals and reports, and through the qualitative and quantitative method by reviewing them directly and verifying and analyzing the information. The importance of the study comes: in identifying the ethnic national identity and what it is exposed to in terms of targeting and local and international political crises, and clarifying the role it can play in the process of political stability, and its importance in raising societal awareness from a scientific point of view; as for the practical point of view, it is by enriching the Iraqi library with vital studies that help researchers and decision-makers in their studies and perceptions. Keywords: (identity, nationalism, political stability, Iraqi component, political crises).

Many research instruments for measuring the degree of expression and components of national identity have been developed and tested, and one of the most commonly applied instruments in the context of former Yugoslav republics is the NAIT scale developed by Čorkalo and Kamenov. The aim of this study is to examine the degree of expression and structure of national identity among students by testing the multidimensional NAIT scale. This research is based on the assumptions of social identity theory developed by Tajfel and Turner, and starts from the existing psychological and sociological definitions of national identity and research on national identity. The students of the University of Kragujevac, the Faculty of Education, participated in the research (N=175). The research results indicate that the expression of national identity is higher with regard to the theoretical mean, and with regards to the results of some other research. The exploratory factor analysis singled out five components of students' national identity: 1) national affiliation; 2) national pride and sentiment; 3) relevance of the sense of national belonging; 4) nationalism; and 5) cosmopolitism. Based on the research results, we identified differences in the individual basic dimensions of students' national identity with regard to previous research.

British national identity has been under constant study by scientists for a long period of time, but after Brexit, interest in this topic has increased significantly. The British nation, especially the part of it that was on the side of the Eurosceptics, after Brexit was aimed at strengthening the British identity and completely destroying any influence of globalization on the inner worldview of the British nation. But despite the expectation of the British, many scientists agree that the national British identity is still in crisis. Thus, the object of this research is the syntactic tools of the English-language political discourse of online mass media, and the purpose is to identify the current state of British national identity through the analysis of syntactic tools of political discourse in modern Britain. Current works (most are under five years old) of Russian and foreign scientists in the field of political discourse and national, including British, identity form the methodological basis of the research. The scientific novelty of the study lies in the fact that for the first time the state of national British identity is considered by analyzing the syntactic tools of discourse of current publications of British online publications. The analysis of syntactic tools of English-language political discourse is carried out on the basis of online media texts for the period January – February 2025, which makes the study innovative and reflects the trends of modern linguistic science. As a result of the conducted research, it was found that the British national identity is expressed most often by such syntactic tools as the subjunctive mood, passive constructions and the use of modal verbs. The research perspective is to study intertextuality and interdiscursivity as a way of constructing the discursive expression of British national identity, as well as the pragmatic aspect of the discursive formation of national British identity.

In the context of a multi-racial country consisting of Malays, Chinese, and Indians as the main majority, the search for the value of national architectural identity is important in highlighting racial harmony. Therefore, establishing the national architectural identity framework is necessary to ensure this can be realized. This paper focuses on the construction of an architectural frameworkof national identity based on the results of previous scholarly studies. This study uses a hermeneutic methodology in which data were collected from scholarly views through literature reviews and then interpreted into its disciplinary subject matter in compiling the indicators for the national architectural identity to propose a framework for public administration building in Malaysia. A case study of green building certified –MBJB Tower is used to further broaden the understanding of the national identityof architecture in Malaysia. An interview session with related personnel and site observation was carried away at MBJB Tower to test the proposed framework. An interpretive paradigm was used to explore each architectural element of national identity and anarrative method was used to discuss the findings in this paper. As an outcome, the architectural framework of the national architectural identity of public administration buildings consists of an understanding of the role, typology, and themes of architectural national identity. The architectural design pattern of national identity for public buildings is seen at three levels, namely macro, mesoand microlevels. The architectural measurement of the national identity of a building can be defined by the design features produced based on the context of venustas, firmitas,and utilitas. In general, the MBJB Tower building is a good example of national identity architecture and can be used as a benchmark to produce more national architectural identity buildings in the future.

While cultural and social analysts both in Australia and overseas (e.g. Adams, 1997; Ignatieff, 1995; 1997) have drawn attention to the international rise of ethnic nationalism in the 'new world order' of the post-cold war world, very little ethnomethodologically-inspired work has addressed the topic. While national identity has become a burgeoning area of interest in the sociological literature (e.g., Delanty, 1996; Treanor, 1997; Rex, 1996; Achard, 1993; Condor, 1999) there appears to be a lack of sustained attention to the way – in actual talk and interaction – expressions of national identity are deployed for various interactional purposes and with a range of interactional consequences. As such, the links between the situated and moment-by-moment interactional management of questions of national identity in talk, and the broader cultural, social and political context in which such claims are mobilised, remain unclear.

Great cities are usually considered to be cites of modernity, so it may seem a bit bizarre to connect them with national identity. Indeed, the face of the Hungarian capital is rather international, reflecting well the universal tendencies of modernization and urbanization that occurred from the end of 18th century. There are, however, some key-buildings and a few other examples in Budapest that give evidence of a counter intention: to provide architecture with a distinctive character as an expression of Hungarian nationality in a modern sense. The 19th century was a high period of Nationalism, and the issue of national style in the arts was raised in many places in Europe and even in the Americas. How could it have been avoided in a multi-ethnic Hungary that tried in vain to regain its independence from the Habsburg Empire throughout the century? It is no wonder that the national character of the arts was the subject of a more or less permanent discussion from the 1850s to the outbreak of World War I. The following paper offers an overview of the urban development of Budapest, followed by presentation of the concepts of the national style with reference to the example of buildings erected in the capital city and a brief discussion of their antecedents.

The current stage of the formation and development of the Ukrainian state is characterized by the special relevance of the issue of the formation of the national identity of its citizens. This is so, because a high level of an individual's ethnic identity is a significant aspect of the successful formation and development of the state and the harmony of its citizens. At the same time, the public consciousness of Ukrainians is currently filled with political interests and the latest ideological slogans. The latter, in turn, causes the destruction of the national system of values. Globalization and migration processes lead to increased interaction between different cultures and nations, which makes the study of national identity more relevant. Personality is a complex system influenced by both internal personal factors and the external environment, including cultural, social, and historical factors. The study of psychological features of national identity helps to understand how the self-awareness of an individual is formed in the context of its cultural roots and interaction with other cultures. This is important for many areas of life. The study of the psychological features of national identity involves the study of the following aspects: cultural stereotypes, values, self-esteem, a sense of belonging to a certain nation or ethnic group, etc. Understanding these psychological features will contribute to the development of a more tolerant society, as well as the identification of ways to support positive self-determination and identity in different cultural contexts. National identity is the recognition of the people themselves; knowledge and respect for history; national culture, territory, and the people's awareness of their own special features, as well as the understanding of the representatives of the national group of their own interests, goals, and needs. "National identity" is a category whose main elements are national self-determination, national self-awareness and traditional culture. A significant condition for the formation of the national (ethnic) identity of an individual is systematic interaction with the reference group for the purpose of forming common goals, vision and support of the national identity. Such interactions will help to confirm a high level of national identity of an individual and activate the mechanism of ethnic identification. And also to intensify socio-psychological factors and develop the components of the national identity of the individual.

Reviewed by: China and the Great War: China’s Pursuit of a New National Identity and Internationalization Katherine K. Reist China and the Great War: China’s Pursuit of a New National Identity and Internationalization. By Xu Gouqi. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005. ISBN 0-521-84212-3. Photographs. Illustrations. Appendixes. Notes. Selected bibliography. Index. Pp. xiv, 316. $80.00. Xu Gouqi has set out to fill a lacuna in our understanding of the Great War. Further, he has placed the war in the broader spectrum of modern Chinese historical development. He explains in an easily understood argument that China's place in the war is neglected or misunderstood, as is the manner in which the leading intellectuals there used the war issues to define and enhance China's participation in the world community. He states that one could read about the war and never know that China had played a part in it (p. 3). While most mentions of China in the war focus on the Shandong issue and the peace conference, with possible comments on the Chinese laborers who toiled in the rear areas of the Western Front, Xu opens these studies to the internal pressures in China to be part of the international experience in order to become a participant in the postwar realignment of power. He pursues diplomatic interactions between the Chinese and the major players on both sides, particularly with the British and French. He also explores Chinese desire to act with the Americans, first as a neutral power, and then to follow them into the war. Particular interest is placed on the role of Woodrow Wilson in China's search for a modern self-identification, and as a member of the international order. [End Page 524] One misperception that is countered is that China was "pulled" into the war by outsiders (p. 10). The Chinese deliberately and creatively found ways in which their participation could be accepted. Xu reflects on the ambitions, disappointments, and problems associated with the desire to be accepted internationally, in order to redefine China as a nation. One solution for the Chinese was to offer laborers and soldiers, as well as weapons, to the French and British. This offer would place China on the same side as Japan, who was using the conflict to extend her interests in China. Yet China needed to be on the winning side in order to benefit from the peace. The secret treaties which the Allies had made with Japan made China's goals problematic. Still, she gained recognition, recovered some rights, and developed a sense of identity as a nation. China in 1919 was fundamentally different from China in 1914 (p. 16). Xu's interweaving of developments in China, both in foreign and domestic areas, helps us to analyze these differences. They resulted in the establishment of a national identity, and a place in the international arena. The author's account is well organized, incorporating information from within and outside the country. He neither overwhelms the nonspecialist, nor repeats unembellished established accounts of China in this period. The book will interest those who focus on the Great War, are interested in the social and intellectual history of modern China, or American diplomatic history, particularly that relating to Woodrow Wilson. This is a coherent account of a very complex subject, broken down into manageable sections, and then unified in a convincing conclusion. Katherine K. Reist University of Pittsburgh at Johnstown Johnstown, Pennsylvania Copyright © 2006 Society for Military History

This is a study of the tranformational impact of their World War One experiences on the national identities of two eminent feminist intellectuals, Vera Brittain and Edith Stein, each a volunteer Red Cross nurse on opposing warfronts. The essay examines how their gender, ethnicity, social class, and feminism intersect within this identity. To assess the War's impact, the author first probes – through extensive research in unpublished and recently published documents – the nature and evolution of Brittain and Stein's pre-war national identities, identities featuring a complex and ambiguous interplay of European and national consciousness. Through analysis of the tension between national and European identity in Brittain's and Stein's lives, the essay highlights key questions with regard to national similarities and differences in women's wartime experiences, as well as revealing critical factors vital to wider analysis of the War's impact on female national identity, particularly among educated middle-class German and British women.