Myocarditis in a Dog Positive for Brucella canis.

Brucellosis is a highly contagious, neglected, and re-emerging zoonotic bacterial disease that poses significant health and economic challenges globally for both humans and animals. Extensive literature is available for various diagnostic strategies; however, no comprehensive meta-analysis comparing the diagnostic tests used has been published. The present study aimed to estimate the relative risk (RR) of diagnostic tests used in humans and animals published between 2013 and 2023. Four databases were systematically searched, and the articles were screened using predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria. Ultimately, the screening process resulted in a total of 135 studies, including 328 comparisons of relevant data of 19,921 humans and 64,145 animals. The data from these studies were extracted, and the subgroup meta-analyses were conducted using the METABIN procedure in the "meta" package of the R statistical software (version 4.4.1). The forest plots were generated to estimate RR, and the funnel plots were used to assess publication and report bias. The subgroup analysis revealed that primary binding assays had higher comparative detection rates than the Rose Bengal plate test (RBPT) for brucellosis in humans [RR = 1.75 (95% CI: 1.35-2.26), I2 = 73%]. Slow agglutination tests had lower detection rates than the RBPT, both in humans [RR = 0.68 (95% CI: 0.48-0.96), I2 = 90%] and cattle [RR = 0.41 (95% CI: 0.25-0.68), I2 = 96%]. Similarly, the complement fixation test (CFT) had a lower detection rate than the RBPT for brucellosis both in cattle [RR = 0.97 (95% CI: 0.94-0.99), I2 = 9%] and sheep [RR = 0.97 (95% CI: 0.95-0.99), I2 = 0%]. This meta-analysis demonstrated that, for the screening of brucellosis in both humans and animals, primary binding assays are the preferred diagnostic tools, followed by the RBPT and slow agglutination tests. However, their effective implementation requires context-specific diagnostic strategies and combined testing approaches to enhance accuracy and reliability.

Brucellosis is a significant zoonotic disease caused by intracellular, gram-negative bacteria from the genus Brucella. Although camels are classified as secondary hosts for Brucella species, they are among the most susceptible and vulnerable animals to brucellosis, particularly Brucella abortus (B. abortus) and Brucella melitensis (B. melitensis). The present study aimed to investigate the epidemiology of camel brucellosis as a zoonotic disease by determining the seroprevalence of brucellosis in both camels and humans, assessing potential risk factors (e.g., age, size, and location), and conducting molecular characterization of Brucella spp. associated with abortion in camels. The Rose Bengal Test (RBT), Antigen Rapid Brucella Antibody Test (ARBT), indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (I-ELISA), and complement fixation test (CFT) were used to detect brucellosis in both camels and humans. Additionally, a molecular method using polymerase chain reaction was used as a confirmatory technique. A total of 625 camel serum samples and 100 human serum samples were collected in sterile vacuum tubes from various camel farms and individuals across different localities in the Al Qassim region. Additionally, samples from 10 confirmed Brucella-infected camels (including the uterus and supramammary lymph nodes) were analyzed. The results indicated that the overall prevalence of brucellosis in camel sera was 9.72%, as determined by RBT, and 8.16%, as determined by ARBT. In contrast, the overall prevalence of brucellosis in human sera from febrile patients was found to be 17% via RBT. Notably, 57.98% of camel sera that tested positive for Brucella antibodies via RBT were also positive according to I-ELISA and CFT. Furthermore, 42.1%, 70.58%, and 47.05% of human sera that were positive for Brucella antibodies as determined by RBT were also positive according to I-ELISA and CFT, respectively. The highest seropositivity for camel brucellosis was observed in female camels, particularly in the Unaizah area of the Qassim region and among the Homr breed. The prevalence of human brucellosis was highest among females and individuals who consumed raw milk. At the molecular level, B. melitensis biovar 3 was detected in the examined tissues. In conclusion, intervention measures are vital for reducing brucellosis in humans and camels. Public awareness campaigns should highlight the importance of protective clothing when handling aborted she-camels and the need to boil or pasteurize milk. Additionally, studies should differentiate between vaccinated and nonvaccinated camels, and standardizing serological tests for diagnosing brucellosis should be prioritized.

Context: Brucellosis represents a zoonotic bacterial disease, caused by a gram negative bacterium called Brucella. Between the diverse species of this bacteria, B. melitensis, B. abortus, B. suis and B. canis consist the main causes of the disease in humans.More than half a million new cases of Brucellosis are reported annually. Consequently, brucellosis is a remarkable threat for the health of society. Because of the multiple nonspecific clinical signs of this infection, such as fever (60% of cases), night sweating, insomnia and anorexia, which are similar to other diseases, the detection of brucellosis is time-consuming and needs more scrutiny. Evidence Acquisition: Blood culture is considered the gold standard for the detection of brucellosis and the sensitivity of this test in the acute form is high. However, for the chronic type of disease, it is remarkably low, in addition, in some cases, it needs long reaction times. Nevertheless, today, some kinds of tests like automatic culturing system and serological methods, such as Rose Bengal (RB) test, serum agglutination test (SAT), 2-mercaptoethanol (2ME) and coombs, which are operated based on agglutination, are useful for the problems mentioned earlier. Conclusion: Although serological methods are common for the diagnosis of brucellosis, false results are observable for several methods, such as the SAT method. Tests like the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), for the screening of specific traits, although confirmed, have their advantages and defects. The lateral flow assay (LFA) shows promising evidence to be effective in the diagnosis of brucellosis. The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is more prevalent than other common tests, according to sensitivity and fast answering potency in case of molecular diagnosis. Also, PCR is proper for patients' follow-up during the period of treatment and crimination of relapse by this method is easier compared to others.

OBJECTIVE To determine the incidence of chyloabdomen diagnosis in cats and dogs and characterize and compare between species the corresponding clinical signs, clinicopathologic test results, and outcomes. DESIGN Retrospective case series. ANIMALS 36 cats and 17 dogs in which chyloabdomen was diagnosed at a veterinary teaching hospital between 1984 and 2014. PROCEDURES Medical records were reviewed, and data retrieved included patient signalment; clinical signs at initial evaluation; results of physical examination, diagnostic tests, and imaging studies; and outcomes. Survival analyses, descriptive statistics, and comparisons between species were completed. RESULTS The incidence of chyloabdomen at the veterinary teaching hospital during the study period was 2.0 cases/100,000 admissions for cats and 2.8 cases/100,000 admissions for dogs. The mean age at diagnosis of chyloabdomen in cats was 11.3 years, compared with 6.9 years in dogs. The most common clinical signs in dogs and cats combined were lethargy (39/51 [76%]) and anorexia (37/51 [73%]), but fewer (23/53 [43%]) had abdominal distention. Chylothorax was a common comorbidity (25/53 [47%]), with malignant neoplasia being the most common underlying diagnosis (24/53 [45%]). Survival analyses included 44 patients; median survival time from diagnosis of chyloabdomen was 31 days overall, 8 days for patients with malignant neoplasia, and 73 days for patients without neoplasia. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE There were multiple causes of chyloabdomen in dogs and cats of the study, and outcome depended on underlying cause. Because of this and the rarity of chyloabdomen, a multicenter prospective study of disease progression, treatment response, and clinical outcome for dogs and cats with chyloabdomen is needed.

Brucellosis is a highly infectious anthropozoonotic disease caused by the bacterial genus Brucella and is prevalent throughout the world. It has a wide host range, and this makes brucellosis an important public health problem causing a negative impact on the economy of the affected country. The disease is endemic in the bovine population, resulting in an estimated economic loss of US dollars 344 billion to the livestock industry. Poor management, irrational animal movement, wide ranges of hosts, large herd size, and commingling of different animal species are risk factors for animal brucellosis. Globally, brucellosis is estimated to account for 500,000 cases in humans every year. The possible risk factors for human brucellosis are eating infected animal products, occupational exposure, and contact with diseased animals or their products and discharges. Human brucellosis is characterized by a variable incubation period and has many clinical manifestations. In humans, undulating fever is the most frequently observed clinical sign with infections reported during the early trimesters of pregnancy. The common measures of preventing animal brucellosis include proper hygiene, control of animal movement, and testing and slaughtering infected animals. Successful prevention of the disease can only be achieved when extension services emphasize addressing the impacts of risk factors for the occurrence of brucellosis. Generally, there is no single prevention strategy that inhibits the transmission of brucellosis amongst animals and humans. Therefore, public education on the transmission, source of infection, public health and economic importance of the disease needs to be undertaken. The control of human and animal brucellosis is multidisciplinary, requiring the efforts of all professionals, and farmers.

Canine leptospirosis is a re-emerging zoonotic infectious disease which is primarily caused by leptospiral spirochetes of the genomospecies Leptospira interrogans and Leptospira kirschneri. Indirect transmission of leptospires mainly occurs through the exposure of susceptible animals to a contaminated environment (urine of reservoir hosts). The leptospires enter the organism via intact mucous membranes or skin lesions. The course of the disease is dependent on the host's immunity, the infecting dose and the virulence of the organism. In dogs with low or absent antibody titres, leptospires can spread and replicate in many tissues. Acute renal failure is the most common clinical feature, but other organs such as liver, lung (haemorrhage), eyes and muscles are also involved. Common laboratory abnormalities include renal azotaemia, altered liver parameters, thrombocytopenia, leucocytosis, anaemia, proteinuria, glucosuria, and bilirubinuria. The diagnosis is based on a combination of clinical signs/laboratory abnormalities and indirect (microscopic agglutination test, ELISA) and direct (PCR, culture) tests. Dogs with acute leptospirosis require intensive care management. In addition to a biphasic anti-infective therapy (amoxicillin and doxycycline), affected dogs require individually adjusted fluid therapy, antiemetics, gastric protectants and analgesics according to their clinical signs. An intensive monitoring is needed mainly because of the risk of anuric renal failure and pulmonary haemorrhage. Haemodialysis may be life-saving.The prognosis is dependent on the severity of the clinical signs and associated complications; the mortality rate is higher in dogs with pulmonary involvement. Since leptospirosis is a zoonotic disease strict hygiene measures have to be taken. In Germany bivalent vaccines and recently tri- and tetravalent vaccines are available

Animal and human health is inextricably linked. People depend on animals for nutrition, socio-economic development and companionship. A cross-sectional serological study was carried out to determine the seroprevalence of three related zoonotic diseases namely Brucellosis, Q-fever and Leptospirosis in cattle, sheep, goats and humans in three sub counties of Kajiado County. In addition the risk factors associated with sero-positivity in animals and humans were assessed. A total of, 250 (cattle), 167 (sheep), (167) goats and 317 (humans) samples were collected. Serum samples were screened for brucellosis using Rose Bengal Plate Test (RBPT) and thereafter a total of 400 samples from all the four species (all the positive on RBPT and other randomly picked samples) were subjected to cELISA (COMPELISA, VLA, UK) test. Results indicated a low prevalence of brucellosis in humans 1.3% (2/150) but a higher prevalence of Q-fever 26% (24/90). The overall prevalence in livestock was 12.91% (27/209) and 79.3% (249/314) 21.8% (54/248) (in cattle only) for brucellosis, Q-fever and Leptospirosis respectively. The prevalence estimates in cattle, sheep and goats were 21.92% (16/73), 8.6% (6/69) and 7.3% (5/67) for brucellosis respectively and 89.7% (140/156), 57.5% (46/80) and 83.1% (69/83) for Q-fever respectively and 21.8% (54/248) for Leptospirosis in cattle only, indicating a high risk of transmission of the diseases to humans through contact and/or consumption of livestock products such as milk. The study and the data obtained therefore indicates that the two zoonotic diseases brucellosis and Q-fever maybe enzootic in the study area in human, cattle, sheep and goats, while leptospirosis is present in cattle and presents a serious public health problem among the inhabitants of the county and that there is need to create awareness among all concerned on the likely high prevalence of the two diseases to avoid misdiagnosis and suffering of patients. It is recommended that the veterinary personnel in Kajiado County make an effort to investigate all cases of abortions and retained placentas that are included in their disease surveillance reports.

A 7-year-old-spayed female standard poodle dog presented to the Iowa State University Veterinary Teaching Hospital with an 8-day history of lethargy, left hind limb lameness, ptyalism and peripheral lymphadenomegaly. On physical examination, the dog was lethargic, febrile (40.5 degrees C) and had multifocal to coalescing erythematous papular to pustular eruptions on the skin of all four limbs, periocularly and on the ventral and lateral thorax and abdomen. Histopathological findings from skin biopsies of the papules revealed a severe diffuse neutrophilic dermatitis with sub- and intra-epithelial pustules. Four days after being admitted the dog died from cardiac and respiratory failure. At necropsy, in addition to the multifocal to coalescing erythematous papules, the skin contained scattered pustules. Additionally, the subcutaneous tissue surrounding the right stifle was diffusely oedematous, and the peripheral and visceral lymph nodes were enlarged. The predominant histologic lesion was neutrophilic inflammation, in the absence of detectable bacteria in the skin, heart, lungs, oesophagus and left tarsus. In the absence of neoplasia or bacteraemia, a syndrome similar to Sweet's Syndrome should be considered as a differential diagnosis in dogs with cutaneous and extracutaneous neutrophilic infiltrates.

Objectives: The clinical utility of complementary tests for brucellosis are not clear in many situation. This study aimed to evaluate value of these tests for brucellosis in an endemic area in Turkey. Materials and methods: This study was performed at Canakkale General Hospital in 2009. In a retrospective approach, records of the patients who evaluated for brucellosis were collected. During the study period, 236 people (131 symptomatic and 105 non-symptomatic) were evaluated for diagnosis of brucellosis. All of the samples from these patients were tested for Brucella antibody seropositivity by RB slide agglutination, standard serum agglutination, Brucella Coombs, BrucellaCapt, and ELISA IgG and IgM tests. Results: In total, 49 symptomatic patients were hospitalized and blood cultures were obtained. Brucella spp. were isolated from nine of them (18.4%).The BrucellaCapt test was found to be the most sensitive for Brucella (74.0%) and close behind it was the Coombs test (72.5%). The sensitivity for the RB test was 48.1%. The ELISA IgG test was found more sensitive for brucellosis than the ELISA IgM test was (65.6% and 49.6%, respectively). All examined tests were found about 100% specific for brucellosis but the RB test was found less specific than the others were (96.1%) Positive predictive value for all tests was about 1 but negative predictive values were only valuable for the Coombs and Brucella Capt test (0.744 and 0.755, respectively). The other serological tests were around and below 0.50, which was weak for negative results. Conclusions: The ELISA IgG and IgM tests were no superior to the other tests. By assessment of receiver operating characteristics (ROC) analysis, the Brucella Coombs and BrucellaCapt tests were found to be the most valuable tests for serological diagnosis of brucellosis in endemic areas. The seronegative tests in the symptomatic patients should be evaluated and repeated in short time. J Microbiol Infect Dis 2012; 2(2): 50-56

Dear Editor, Human brucellosis is the most common zoonosis worldwide and is caused by gram-negative bacteria, Brucella spp. [1]. Among the Brucella spp., B. abortus, B. canis, B. melitensis, and B. suis can cause human brucellosis. Human brucellosis involves various organs including bone marrow (BM), shows non-specific clinical manifestations including fever, fatigue, back pain, and arthralgia, and can progress to septicemia or multi-organ failure [1,2]. In Korea, since the first case of human brucellosis in 2002 [3], all reported 747 cases have been caused by B. abortus, and the majority were related to the out-break of bovine brucellosis in mid-2000 [4]. We report the first Korean case of human brucellosis caused by B. melitensis. A 34-yr-old man presented with high fever (39.2℃), significant weight loss (10 kg/month), and back pain that persisted for three weeks. He was a Korean resident living in northwestern China (Yanji, Jilin) who had been working on a stock farm in Pyeongchang, Gangwon Province, Korea for two months before visiting our hospital. He had hepatosplenomegaly, elevated aminotransferases, and pancytopenia. His complete blood count showed the following: hemoglobin, 8.8 g/dL; white blood cells, 2.1×109/L; and platelets, 43×109/L. His BM was normocellular with intact trilineage hematopoiesis, and neither granuloma nor necrosis was present. Plasma cells (CD19+/CD56-) were elevated (11.7%), and polyclonal gammopathy was detected via serum protein electrophoresis. A magnetic resonance imaging to evaluate back pain revealed pyogenic spondylitis at L3-4. The first two blood cultures yielded gram-negative bacilli, which were identified as B. melitensis by using Vitek 2 (bioMerieux, Marcy-l'Etoile, France). In a microagglutination test (MAT), the antibody titer was 1:80. The patient received doxycycline and rifampicin for three weeks and was discharged with no symptoms except mild leukopenia. The MAT titer was not rechecked during the recovery period, because he declined further treatment. The Vitek 2 system database has a limitation in identifying Brucella spp.: it misidentifies B. abortus as B. melitensis. Therefore, the identification result of B. melitensis was further confirmed at the Division of Zoonoses at the Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention after the approval of the Institutional Review Board of Konkuk University Medical Center, Seoul, Korea. After a blood culture, the cultivated product was streaked on both a blood agar plate and a Brucella agar plate and incubated at 37℃ and 5% CO2 atmosphere. After several passages through the Brucella agar plate, the pure culture product (the isolate) tested negative for H2S production and positive for oxidase and urease. DNA was extracted from the isolate to amplify the Brucella-specific genes (16S rRNA, BCSP31, and Omp2) [5]. PCR targeting Omp31, IS711, and BCSS confirmed this isolate as B. melitensis [6,7,8] (Table 1). Draft whole genome sequence analysis assembled by CLC bio CLC Genomics Workbench 7.5.1 (Waltham, MA, USA) revealed that the isolate was B. melitensis (Fig. 1). Fig. 1 Average nucleotide identity tree of Brucella melitensis. The genome tree was constructed by using BM2015 (the isolate) and related Brucella spp. Table 1 Primers used in this study and the results of PCR and sequencing To identify Brucella spp. when brucellosis is suspected, a careful and complete history should be taken of the patient's occupation, travel, and unpasteurized diet history [9]. The present patient had worked on a sheep farm for two months before admission and experienced nonspecific symptoms (fever, weight loss, and back pain) for three weeks, indicating B. melitensis infection. Before he was in Korea, he had lived in north-western China, where B. melitensis has been dominant [10]. It is not clear whether he had raw food from infected animals in China or in Korea, or whether he acquired brucellosis occupationally by direct skin contact or inhalation of aerosolized infected particles [9]. Although the clinical history appears insufficient, considering that he had been healthy before developing these clinical symptoms, it is unlikely that he already had brucellosis in China. In the present case, H2S was negative, and oxidase and urease were positive in the biochemical analysis, suggesting the possibility of B. melitensis infection together with the patient's working history on the sheep farm. However, H2S production can be also negative in the other Brucella spp., and molecular identification is necessary to confirm the diagnosis. We used multiple gene targets to detect the Brucella genus using a common PCR assay [5] and also used Omp31, IS711, and BCSS gene targets to distinguish B. melitensis from the other Brucella spp. [6,7,8] (Table 1). Conclusively, this is the first official case of human brucellosis caused by B. melitensis in Korea that was confirmed by using molecular methods. Careful recording of patient history and molecular identification are necessary in patients with suspected brucellosis to confirm the causative Brucella spp.

To measure effects of dog position on L7-S1 intervertebral foraminal area and lumbosacral (LS) angle by means of computed tomography (CT) and determine whether changes in values between positions are associated with clinical signs in dogs with LS disease. 86 dogs examined via a positional CT protocol that included flexion and extension scans of L7-S1. Archived CT images and medical records were reviewed. Included dogs had good-quality flexion and extension CT scans of L7-S1 and no evidence of fractures, neoplasia, or previous LS surgery. One person who was unaware of CT findings recorded clinical status with regard to 3 signs of LS disease (right or left hind limb lameness and LS pain) at the time of CT evaluation. One person who was unaware of clinical findings measured L7-S1 foraminal areas and LS angles, with the aid of an image-analysis workstation and reformatted parasagittal planar CT images. Intraobserver variation for measurements of L7-S1 foraminal area ranged from 6.4% to 6.6%. Mean foraminal area and LS angle were significantly smaller when vertebral columns were extended versus flexed. Percentage positional change in L7-S1 foraminal area or LS angle was not significantly different among dogs with versus without each clinical sign. There was a significant correlation between percentage positional change in L7-S1 foraminal area and LS angle in dogs with versus without ipsilateral hind limb lameness and LS pain. Positional CT is a feasible technique for quantifying dynamic changes in L7-S1 intervertebral foraminal morphology in dogs with LS disease.

Brucellosis is a bacterial zoonotic disease which poses a significant public health challenge globally. In Kenya, it is a priority zoonosis, causing morbidity and losses in humans and animals. Here, we used monthly surveillance data from 2014 to 2022 from the official human and animal health surveillance databases. We conducted spatiotemporal analysis, tested associations between human and animal brucellosis using Time Series Linear Models, and forecasted the incidence of human brucellosis for twelve months using Seasonal Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average (SARIMA) models. Our analysis revealed a significant disparity in brucellosis cases, with a much higher cumulative number of human cases (4,688,787) compared to animal cases (1214). Human incidence depicted a relatively stable trend, with occasional fluctuations. However, cattle and camel incidences displayed sporadic peaks and troughs. Only cattle brucellosis was significantly associated (estimate: 0.355; 95% CI: 0.004 to 0.707) with human brucellosis. SARIMA models demonstrated reasonable predictive accuracy for human incidence, but incorporating animal data did not significantly improve model performance. Our study highlights the weaknesses in the existing surveillance systems and the need for comprehensive evaluation of the systems and implementation of integrated surveillance to address gaps in surveillance, improve the accuracy of predictive analysis, and enhance early detection for zoonotic diseases.

BackgroundBrucellosis is listed as one of six priority zoonoses in Tanzania’s One Health strategic plan which highlights gaps in data needed for the surveillance and estimation of human brucellosis burdens. This study collected data on current testing practices and test results for human brucellosis in Arusha region, northern Tanzania.MethodsRetrospective data were extracted from records at 24 health facilities in Arusha region for the period January 2012 to May 2018. Data were captured on: the test reagents used for brucellosis, procurement and testing protocols, the monthly number of patients tested for brucellosis and the monthly number testing positive. Generalised linear mixed models were used to evaluate relationships between health facility characteristics and the probability that brucellosis testing was conducted in a given month, and the proportion of individuals testing positive.ResultsFour febrile Brucella agglutination tests were used widely. The probability of testing for brucellosis in a given month was significantly associated with an interaction between year of testing and facility ownership. Test probability increased over time with more pronounced increases in privately owned as compared to government facilities. The proportion of individuals testing positive for brucellosis was significantly associated with facility type and district, with individuals tested in hospitals in Meru, Monduli and Ngorongoro districts more likely to test positive.ConclusionsFebrile Brucella agglutination tests, known for their poor performance, were the mainstay of brucellosis testing at health facilities in northern Tanzania. The study indicates that historical data on human brucellosis in Arusha and other regions are likely to provide an inaccurate measure of true disease burden due to poor performance of the tests used and variation in testing practices. Measures to address these identified shortcomings could greatly improve quality of testing and surveillance data on brucellosis and ultimately inform prevention and control of this priority disease.

Brucellosis is listed as one of six priority zoonoses in Tanzania's One Health strategic plan which highlights gaps in data needed for the surveillance and estimation of human brucellosis burdens. This study collected data on current testing practices and test results for human brucellosis in Arusha region, northern Tanzania. Retrospective data were extracted from records at 24 health facilities in Arusha region for the period January 2012 to May 2018. Data were captured on: the test reagents used for brucellosis, procurement and testing protocols, the monthly number of patients tested for brucellosis and the monthly number testing positive. Generalised linear mixed models were used to evaluate relationships between health facility characteristics and the probability that brucellosis testing was conducted in a given month, and the proportion of individuals testing positive. Four febrile Brucella agglutination tests were used widely. The probability of testing for brucellosis in a given month was significantly associated with an interaction between year of testing and facility ownership. Test probability increased over time with more pronounced increases in privately owned as compared to government facilities. The proportion of individuals testing positive for brucellosis was significantly associated with facility type and district, with individuals tested in hospitals in Meru, Monduli and Ngorongoro districts more likely to test positive. Febrile Brucella agglutination tests, known for their poor performance, were the mainstay of brucellosis testing at health facilities in northern Tanzania. The study indicates that historical data on human brucellosis in Arusha and other regions are likely to provide an inaccurate measure of true disease burden due to poor performance of the tests used and variation in testing practices. Measures to address these identified shortcomings could greatly improve quality of testing and surveillance data on brucellosis and ultimately inform prevention and control of this priority disease.

Brucellosis in domestic animals is a chronic disease that is characterized mainly by reproductive signs in cattle, buffaloes, pigs, sheep, goats and dogs. In females the disease is characterized by abortion, placenta retention, vaginal secretions, low fertility rate and also embryonic and neonatal death. In males, regular findings include epididymitis, orchitis, uni- or bilateral testicular atrophy, sperm abnormalities and infertility. Lymphadenopathy, hepatopathy, splenomegaly, uveitis and discospondylitis may also be observed in dogs. In horses, the typical clinical sign is characterized by a granulomatous supraspinous or supra-atlantal bursa lesion. Infected animals can also be asymptomatic. Infected symptomatic or asymptomatic animals represent an important source of infection to other animals and humans. Brucellosis in humans can cause undulant fever, malaise, insomnia, anorexia, headache, arthralgia, constipation, sexual impotence, nervousness and depression. For all species the presentation of clinical signs are only suggestive of disease infection and thus must be differentiated from other diseases.