Multivariate Exploration of Food Security in the Sulampua Region Identification of Clusters and Dominant Dimensions of Food Security

Aggregate estimates of food expenditure are consistent with such a possibility, implying income/expenditure elasticities close to one. However, the high degree of aggregation at which such estimates are made means that the considerable increase in price per nutrient as income increases is ignored, and the nutrient elasticities are therefore overstated. Estimates for a rural south Indian sample indicate that this bias is considerable and that the true nutrient elasticities with respect to income may be close to zero.

The Public Distribution System (PDS) of India plays a crucial role in reducing food insecurity by acting as a safety net by distributing essentials at a subsidised rate. While the PDS forms a cornerstone of government food and nutrition policy, India continues to be home to a large population of hungry and malnourished people. This review seeks to explore the functioning and efficiency of the PDS in achieving food and nutritional security in India. A comprehensive and systematic search using the key terms “food insecurity” OR “food security” AND “Public Distribution System” OR “PDS” OR “TPDS” AND “India” identified 23 articles which met the inclusion criteria. This review draws attention to the lack of published literature in areas of PDS and food security in India. The findings of the review emphasise the role of PDS in tackling hunger and malnutrition while highlighting its limited role in improving food security and childhood mortality due to operational inefficiencies. The PDS has the potential to act as a solution to food insecurity in India if the operational inefficiencies and environmental footprints are addressed by adequate policy reforms.

Agriculture production is directly dependent on climate change and weather. Possible changes in temperature, precipitation and CO2 concentration are expected to significantly impact crop growth and ultimately we lose our crop productivity and indirectly affect the sustainable food availability issue. The overall impact of climate change on worldwide food production is considered to be low to moderate with successful adaptation and adequate irrigation. Climate change has a serious impact on the availability of various resources on the earth especially water, which sustains life on this planet. The global food security situation and outlook remains delicately imbalanced amid surplus food production and the prevalence of hunger, due to the complex interplay of social, economic, and ecological factors that mediate food security outcomes at various human and institutional scales. Weather aberration poses complex challenges in terms of increased variability and risk for food producers and the energy and water sectors. Changes in the biosphere, biodiversity and natural resources are adversely affecting human health and quality of life. Throughout the 21st century, India is projected to experience warming above global level. India will also begin to experience more seasonal variation in temperature with more warming in the winters than summers. Longevity of heat waves across India has extended in recent years with warmer night temperatures and hotter days, and this trend is expected to continue. Strategic research priorities are outlined for a range of sectors that underpin global food security, including: agriculture, ecosystem services from agriculture, climate change, international trade, water management solutions, the water-energy-food security nexus, service delivery to smallholders and women farmers, and better governance models and regional priority setting. There is a need to look beyond agriculture and invest in affordable and suitable farm technologies if the problem of food insecurity is to be addressed in a sustainable manner. Introduction Globally, agriculture is one of the most vulnerable sectors to climate change. This vulnerability is relatively higher in India in view of the large population depending on agriculture and poor coping capabilities of small and marginal farmers. Impacts of climate change pose a serious threat to food security. “Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life” (World Food Summit, 1996). This definition gives rise to four dimensions of food security: availability of food, accessibility (economically and physically), utilization (the way it is used and assimilated by the human body) and stability of these three dimensions. According to the United Nations, in 2015, there are still 836 million people in the world living in extreme poverty (less than USD1.25/day) (UN, 2015). And according to the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), at least 70 percent of the very poor live in rural areas, most of them depending partly (or completely) on agriculture for their livelihoods. It is estimated that 500 million smallholder farms in the developing world are supporting almost 2 billion people, and in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa these small farms produce about 80 percent of the food consumed. Climate change threatens to reverse the progress made so far in the fight against hunger and malnutrition. As highlighted by the assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate change (IPCC), climate change augments and intensifies risks to food security for the most vulnerable countries and populations. Few of the major risks induced by climate change, as identified by IPCC have direct consequences for food security (IPCC, 2007). These are mainly to loss of rural livelihoods and income, loss of marine and coastal ecosystems, livelihoods loss of terrestrial and inland water ecosystems and food insecurity (breakdown of food systems). Rural farmers, whose livelihood depends on the use of natural resources, are likely to bear the brunt of adverse impacts. Most of the crop simulation model runs and experiments under elevated temperature and carbon dioxide indicate that by 2030, a 3-7% decline in the yield of principal cereal crops like rice and wheat is likely in India by adoption of current production technologies. Global warming impacts growth, reproduction and yields of food and horticulture crops, increases crop water requirement, causes more soil erosion, increases thermal stress on animals leading to decreased milk yields and change the distribution and breeding season of fisheries. Fast changing climatic conditions, shrinking land, water and other natural resources with rapid growing population around the globe has put many challenges before us (Mukherjee, 2014). Food is going to be second most challenging issue for mankind in time to come. India will also begin to experience more seasonal variation in temperature with more warming in the winters than summers (Christensen et al., 2007). Climate change is posing a great threat to agriculture and food security in India and it's subcontinent. Water is the most critical agricultural input in India, as 55% of the total cultivated areas do not have irrigation facilities. Currently we are able to secure food supplies under these varying conditions. Under the threat of climate variability, our food grain production system becomes quite comfortable and easily accessible for local people. India's food grain production is estimated to rise 2 per cent in 2020-21 crop years to an all-time high of 303.34 million tonnes on better output of rice, wheat, pulse and coarse cereals amid good monsoon rains last year. In the 2019-20 crop year, the country's food grain output (comprising wheat, rice, pulses and coarse cereals) stood at a record 297.5 million tonnes (MT). Releasing the second advance estimates for 2020-21 crop year, the agriculture ministry said foodgrain production is projected at a record 303.34 MT. As per the data, rice production is pegged at record 120.32 MT as against 118.87 MT in the previous year. Wheat production is estimated to rise to a record 109.24 MT in 2020-21 from 107.86 MT in the previous year, while output of coarse cereals is likely to increase to 49.36 MT from 47.75 MT. Pulses output is seen at 24.42 MT, up from 23.03 MT in 2019-20 crop year. In the non-foodgrain category, the production of oilseeds is estimated at 37.31 MT in 2020-21 as against 33.22 MT in the previous year. Sugarcane production is pegged at 397.66 MT from 370.50 MT in the previous year, while cotton output is expected to be higher at 36.54 million bales (170 kg each) from 36.07. This production figure seem to be sufficient for current population, but we need to improve more and more with vertical farming and advance agronomic and crop improvement tools for future burgeoning population figure under the milieu of climate change issue. Our rural mass and tribal people have very limited resources and they sometime complete depend on forest microhabitat. To order to ensure food and nutritional security for growing population, a new strategy needs to be initiated for growing of crops in changing climatic condition. The country has a large pool of underutilized or underexploited fruit or cereals crops which have enormous potential for contributing to food security, nutrition, health, ecosystem sustainability under the changing climatic conditions, since they require little input, as they have inherent capabilities to withstand biotic and abiotic stress. Apart from the impacts on agronomic conditions of crop productions, climate change also affects the economy, food systems and wellbeing of the consumers (Abbade, 2017). Crop nutritional quality become very challenging, as we noticed that, zinc and iron deficiency is a serious global health problem in humans depending on cereal-diet and is largely prevalent in low-income countries like Sub-Saharan Africa, and South and South-east Asia. We report inefficiency of modern-bred cultivars of rice and wheat to sequester those essential nutrients in grains as the reason for such deficiency and prevalence (Debnath et al., 2021). Keeping in mind the crop yield and nutritional quality become very daunting task to our food security issue and this can overcome with the proper and time bound research in cognizance with the environment. Threat and challenges In recent years, climate change has become a debatable issue worldwide. South Asia will be one of the most adversely affected regions in terms of impacts of climate change on agricultural yield, economic activity and trading policies. Addressing climate change is central for global future food security and poverty alleviation. The approach would need to implement strategies linked with developmental plans to enhance its adaptive capacity in terms of climate resilience and mitigation. Over time, there has been a visible shift in the global climate change initiative towards adaptation. Adaptation can complement mitigation as a cost-effective strategy to reduce climate change risks. The impact of climate change is projected to have different effects across societies and countries. Mitigation and adaptation actions can, if appropriately designed, advance sustainable development and equity both within and across countries and between generations. One approach to balancing the attention on adaptation and mitigation strategies is to compare the costs and benefits of both the strategies. The most imminent change is the increase in the atmospheric temperatures due to increase levels of GHGs (Green House Gases) i.e. carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) etc into the atmosphere. The global mean annual temperatures at the end of the 20th

Though fisheries can contribute to nutritional needs, food security, poverty alleviation, and sustainable natural resource management in many developing countries, their role in the achievement of sustainable development goals is often overlooked. Accordingly, data on the socioeconomic characteristics and living conditions of fishing communities and households are limited. This study contributes to a better understanding of fishing‐related livelihoods by analyzing household survey data relating to the food security, poverty, and livelihoods of fishing households. It reveals that, in many countries, fishing households have a lower probability of falling below the poverty line, with improved food security and nutrition indicators, showing that fisheries can, indeed, be an important ally in the fight against poverty, hunger, and food insecurity.

This study was conducted to assess the temporal changes in the status of food security in India. The food security was assessed in terms of its basic pillars—availability access and absorption. Findings reveal that though there has been a remarkable improvement in the status of food security in India, the presence of food insecurity on a large scale erodes the large chunk of sheen from the glory of economic development in India. Several initiatives have been taken to tackle the challenge of food security, and the public distribution system (PDS) has been the most important instrument of ensuring food security in India. It has been observed that its contribution to poverty reduction and food security improvement has been increasing over time.

Food security remains a critical component of sustainable regional development, particularly in agrarian areas experiencing ongoing demographic change. Population growth increases food demand and may exert pressure on food systems if not matched by adequate improvements in food availability and access. This study aims to analyze the effect of population growth on the Food Security Index in Gorontalo Province, Indonesia, during the period 2018–2024, with a focus on understanding the demographic dimension of food security at the subnational level. The study employs a quantitative explanatory approach using panel data at the regency and city level. Secondary data on population growth are obtained from official statistical sources, while food security is measured using the Food Security Index, a composite indicator reflecting food availability, access, and utilization. Linear panel regression analysis is applied to estimate the relationship between population growth and food security over time. The results indicate that population growth has a statistically significant and negative effect on the Food Security Index in Gorontalo Province. This finding suggests that increases in population tend to weaken food security when growth in food system capacity does not keep pace with rising demand. The discussion highlights that population growth affects food security through multiple channels, including pressure on food availability, competition for agricultural land, and reduced economic access to food for vulnerable households. These outcomes are consistent with demographic and entitlement-based perspectives, emphasizing that food insecurity arises not only from supply constraints but also from limitations in access and utilization. In conclusion, the study demonstrates that population growth constitutes an important determinant of regional food security in Gorontalo Province. The findings underscore the need for food security policies that integrate demographic considerations alongside agricultural development and social protection measures to ensure sustainable and equitable food security outcomes.

Food security is one of the issues that plays an important role in national development, especially in regions with varying levels of economic welfare such as Jambi Province. One of the main factors affecting food security is food expenditure, which reflects the economic capacity of households to access food. The complex and non-linear relationship between Food Security Index (FSI) and Food Expenditure requires a flexible modeling approach in the analysis. This study aims to compare the performance of nonparametric regression Kernel ans Spline regression methods, namely the Nadaraya-Watson Estimator (NWE) and Local Polynomial Estimator (LPE) for Kernel Regression as well as Smoothing Spline and B-Spline for Spline Regression. The analysis was conducted using secondary data obtained from the Food Security and Vulnerability Map (FSVA) of 2023, with a total of 141 subdistricts in Jambi Province. The response variable is the Food Security Index (FSI), while the predictor variable is Food Expenditure. Model evaluation was conducted using the Mean Squared Error (MSE) and the coefficient of determination (R²). The results showed that the NWE method had the best performance with the smallest MSE value of 24.47690 and the highest R² value of 0.3332, meaning that approximately 33.32% of the variation in FSI could be explained by Food Expenditure. The LPE method showed nearly comparable performance, while Smoothing Spline and B-Spline exhibited higher prediction error rates. Therefore, the NWE method can be recommended as an effective nonparametric regression approach for modeling the relationship between food expenditure and food security.

Climate change, famine, and low-income communities challenge Sustainable Development Goals

Agriculture plays a pivotal role in the Indian economy. Although its contribution to gross domestic product (GDP) is now around one-sixth, it provides employment to 56 % of the Indian workforce. Thus agriculture not only contributes to overall growth of the economy but also reduces poverty by providing livelihoods and food security to the majority of the population in the country and thus it is the most inclusive growth sector of the Indian economy. The global experience of growth and poverty reduction shows that GDP growth originating in agriculture is at least twice as effective in reducing poverty as GDP growth originating outside agriculture (WDR 2008). The 12th Five-Year Plan’s (2012–2017) approach paper also indicates that agricultural development is an important component of a faster, more inclusive sustainable growth approach. This chapter examines the performance, issues and challenges in agriculture and food security in India. It is organised as follows. Section 2 presents the performance in agriculture, while Sect. 3 looks at performance in food security. Section 4 examines issues and future challenges for achieving higher growth in agriculture and enhanced food security in India.

This study explores the effect of small-scale agricultural crop commercialisation on household food security in Liwale, Lindi. The study used a household survey data from a sample of 389 households that were collected in 2017. The Principal Component Analysis was used to develop the household food security index and the Cluster Analysis was used to assign the individual households to their respective clusters of food security index. The output side measure of commercialisation was used to develop crop commercialisation index, and lastly, the Ordered Logit Model was used to estimate the effect of commercialisation on food security. The average household food security index is 32%. The majority (64%) of the households were moderately food secured with an average food security index of 32.8% while only 16% of households were relatively more food secure than the rest and with average food security index of 49.1%. The average commercialisation of small-scale agricultural crops is 66%. The results from ordered logit estimation show that crop commercialisation, off-farm income, and access to extension services positively affect the level of household food security while credit negatively affects food security. The implication of the findings is that, small local processing factories should be established in rural areas to promote commercialisation, value addition and increase of market access and linkages to reduce post-harvest losses incurred as a result of poor storage technology and perishability.

Needs-based food and nutrient security indices to monitor and modify the food supply and intakes: Taiwan, 1991–2010

The literature reiterates the need to employ indicators that reflect the multidimensional nature of food security. In a quest to capture the multidimensional nature of food security, this study uses a novel ideal that harmonizes two food security indicators (food expenditure (FOODexp) and dietary diversity score (DDS)) to categorize households into different levels of food security states in Nigeria. In addition, the study also examined factors that influence the probability of households being in different levels of food security states in the country. Our estimates show that about 66 and 60% of the households in the sample were food secure based on a single indicator such as FOODexp and DDS, respectively. However, by harmonizing the two indicators, results reveal that about 42% of the households are actually food secure. The implication of this is that about 24 and 18% of the households are transitory food insecure. Results also suggest that the use of a single indicator may wrongly classify households as food secure instead of categorizing them as transitory food insecure. Furthermore, the empirical results show that households that consume only home produced food have high probabilities of being food insecure, while households that consume only market-purchased food are less likely to be food insecure. The implication of this finding is that harmonization of food security indicators helps identify households with different nature of food (in) security problems that require different types of policy interventions most especially in Nigeria. The results of the empirical analysis also imply that market-based intervention policies that facilitate households’ access at all time to healthy foods of their choice should be given priority. This gives the household opportunity to benefit from greater varieties of food items offered by the market.

This chapter observes the implications of climate change on production and yield of crops, and food security (FS) in India as per the previous studies. It also explains that climate change induced pests and insects in the agricultural sector. It also analyzes the role of adaptation and mitigation strategies in the agricultural sector and FS. The yield and production of crops are predicted to decline due to climate change and pests' germination. The use of technologies, mixed cropping pattern, cropping intensity, climate-resilient crops, drought-tolerance crop, irrigation facilities, soil management, water harvesting, bio-technology, green fertilizer, hybrid varieties of seed, soil conservation, crop rotation, appropriate technology, digital technology, ICT, and integrated pest management strategies will be effective for agricultural sustainability and FS in India. It also suggests the scope of further research in the above-mentioned fields.

Food security is a key pillar of national development, reflecting a region’s ability to sustain food availability, accessibility, utilization, and stability. The Food Security Index (FSI) serves as a crucial measure of this capability. Based on 2023 data, West Sumatra Province achieved the highest FSI score on the island of Sumatra. This study analyzes food security in 19 regencies and cities of West Sumatra from 2019 to 2023 using a Spatial Lag Fixed Effects Model. The research integrates spatial analysis and panel data approaches to identify determinants of the FSI and assess spatial spillover effects between regions. Secondary data were obtained from the Statistics Agency (BPS) and the National Food Agency. The results reveal significant spatial autocorrelation in most years, except 2023. The best-fitting model is the Spatial Lag Fixed Effects Model. Changes in land area, food expenditure, and rice productivity significantly improve FSI, while non-food expenditure and economic growth do not show a positive effect. The findings emphasize the importance of incorporating spatial dependencies in regional food security policies. Moreover, significant spillover effects indicate that improvements in one area can influence neighboring regions. Therefore, inter-regional cooperation and integrated food distribution policies are essential to achieving sustainable food security.

One of the prime concerns of India’s policies has been the food and nutritional security to its population. The three important components of food security are: availability, access, and absorption (nutrition). These three are interrelated. The major aim of this paper is to examine the performance in food security in India in respect of these three components. In respect of availability, The average annual growth rates in Yields of Food grain Production and in Area under cultivation for Food grain Production have been computed for five time periods; pre green revolution 1950-51 to 66-67), early green revolution (1967-68 to 1979-80), mature green revolution (1980-81 to 1989-90), early economic reforms (1990-91 to 1999-00), and economic reforms (2000-01 to 2011-12). The food grains production has deteriorated when India entered in the era of globalization. The free market play has adversely affected the production of food grains and the rate of growth of food grains production declined after the introduction of New Economic Policy (NEP) in India. So far as the accessibility aspect of food security is concerned, long term trend in consumption pattern at household level shows that per capita direct consumption of food grains has been declining. Further India’s performance in food security on nutritional outcomes has not been very satisfactory. The Global Food Security Index 2012 released in New Delhi in September, 2012, placed India in a moderate category. It ranked India 66th among 105 nations and cited affordability rather than availability as a key food security threat for Indians. India scored highest in food availability (51.3) but lowest (38.4) in terms of food access. It also points to its poor ability to move food efficiently because of infrastructure problems. Similarly, in food security index 2013, India slipped to 70 position. We live in paradoxical times, and it is not the shortage of food but the lack of a proper food distribution network that is to blame.