Abstract

Abstract. Detachments of large parts of low-angle mountain glaciers in recent years have raised great attention due to their threats to lives and properties downstream. While current studies have mainly focused on post-event analysis, a few opportunities have presented themselves to assess the potential hazards of a glacier prone to detachment. Here we present a comprehensive analysis of the dynamics and runout hazard of a low-angle (∼20∘) valley glacier, close to the Qinghai–Tibet railway and highway, in the East Kunlun Mountains on the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau. The changes in morphology, terminus position, and surface elevation of the glacier between 1975 and 2021 were characterized with a stereo-image pair from the historical KH-9 spy satellite, six digital elevation models (DEMs), and 11 high-resolution images from Planet Labs. The surface flow velocities of the glacier tongue between 2009 and 2020 were also tracked based on cross-correlation of Planet images. Our observations show that the glacier snout has been progressively advancing in the past 4 decades, with a stepwise increase in advance velocity from 4.55±0.46ma-1 between 1975 and 2009 to 30.88±2.36ma-1 between 2015 and 2020. DEM differencing confirms the glacial advance, with surface thinning in the source region and thickening in the tongue. The net volume loss over the glacier tongue was about 11.21±2.66×105 m3 during 1975–2018. Image cross-correlation reveals that the surface flow velocity of the glacier tongue has been increasing in recent years, with the mean velocity below 4800 m more than tripling from 6.3±1.8ma-1 during 2009–2010 to 22.3±3.2ma-1 during 2019–2020. With a combined analysis of the geomorphic, climatic, and hydrologic conditions of the glacier, we suggest that the flow of the glacier tongue is mainly controlled by the glacier geometry, while the presence of an ice-dammed lake and a supraglacial pond implies a hydrological influence as well. Taking the whole glacier and glacier tongue as two endmember avalanche sources, we assessed the potential runout distances of these two scenarios using the angle of reach and the Voellmy–Salm avalanche model. The assessments show that the avalanche of the whole glacier would easily travel a distance that would threaten the safety of the railway. In contrast, the detachment of the glacier tongue would threaten the railway only with a small angle of reach or when employing a low-friction parameter in the Voellmy–Salm modeling.

Highlights

  • Glacier instabilities in the form of ice break-offs and avalanches are universal phenomena (Faillettaz et al, 2015; Haeberli et al, 2004; Jacquemart et al, 2020)

  • We present a comprehensive analysis of the dynamics of a small low-angle valley glacier (37.678◦ N, 94.145◦ E) in the East Kunlun Mountains of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau (QTP) (Fig. 1)

  • The elevation differences over the Kunlun Pass (KLP)-37 glacier between the X- and C-band SRTM digital elevation models (DEMs) were calculated, from which we found that the elevation difference increased with elevation (Fig. S3 in the Supplement)

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Summary

Introduction

Glacier instabilities in the form of ice break-offs and avalanches are universal phenomena (Faillettaz et al, 2015; Haeberli et al, 2004; Jacquemart et al, 2020). One of the earliest events that was documented in detail was the destructive 2002 Kolka glacier detachment in Russia, which killed about 140 people due to the mass flow (Haeberli et al, 2004; Huggel et al, 2005). Another destructive event raising great attention was the 2016 detachments of two valley glaciers in the Aru mountain range in the western Qinghai–Tibet Plateau (QTP), which caused nine casualties (Bai and He, 2020; Gilbert et al, 2018; Kääb et al, 2018; Tian et al, 2016). Recent research suggests that glacier detachments occur more frequently than previously thought (Kääb et al, 2021a)

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