Mukbang in Turkey as a Virtual Community. Socialization and Parasocial Interaction: A Netnographic Analysis

The rapid development of social media（such as live streaming, short videos, Vlogs, etc.）has attracted scholars’ attention to the theory of para-social interaction. Different from traditional media, social media provides new research ideas and content for exploring this kind of interaction between social media personae and consumers due to its characteristics of instant communication, interactivity, novelty of content, media personalization and social media scenario.Through literature reviews, this paper summarizes the psychological mechanism of para-social interaction in social media. Para-social interaction is distinguished from real social interaction by how it is influenced by social media. Media personae’s characteristics, consumers’ characteristics, and social platform characteristics, all of which are the main influencing factors of consumers’ para-social interaction engagement. According to the Elaboration Likelihood Model（ELM）, para-social interaction can stimulate consumers’ cognition of media personae’s self-disclosure and their perceived social presence through the central route and the peripheral route respectively, so as to improve the authenticity and accessibility of media personae perceived by consumers, and ultimately affect the para-social relationship between consumers and media personae. According to Skinner’s theory of reinforcement and previous studies, this paper also demonstrates that para-social interaction and para-social relationship will be continuously strengthened each other in a circular way, where para-social interaction drives the formation of para-social relationships, which will in turn motivate more para-social interaction. With each cycle of reinforcement between PSI and PSR, the para-social relationship between consumers and media personae rises to a higher level, presenting a spiral-upgrading state. Last but not least, when consumers and media personae establish the para-social relationship through para-social interaction, consumers tend to believe in media personas（source credibility）, and further believe in the brands recommended by media personae（brand credibility）, resulting in more marketing effectiveness（purchase intention and positive word-of-mouth）. Meanwhile, the influence of para-social relationships on source credibility may be moderated by the congruence between media personae and brands.In a word, both cyclic reinforcement mechanism and dual processing routes constitute the psychological mechanism of para-social interaction, which ultimately promotes more marketing effectiveness. Finally, this paper puts forward the marketing strategies to enterprises and the directions for future research.This paper makes two main contributions: On the one hand, it makes theoretical contributions through exploring the psychological mechanism of para-social interaction; on the other hand, it provides guidance for enterprises to effectively use social media, select and manage media personae, and promote enterprises to generate economic benefits.

A social network is often a person's primary window on the social world. Personal and professional growth, opportunities, and exploration are all gained through our social connections. Such connections are especially important during emerging adulthood. Defined as the time span between ages 18-29, many significant social and professional changes typically occur during emerging adulthood, from career seeking and planning to seeking a life partner. The present study sought to create detailed pictures of emerging adults' use of Nerdfighteria, a popular multi-platform online community and to investigate the role that parasocial relationships play in emerging adults' interactions within the community. Online methods of connecting with others can be especially effective during this often-fluctuating life stage since the point of entry to engage online is generally low. Among the most popular social media sites, YouTube has held the place for the highest traffic on a video streaming site almost since its inception. YouTube enables content creators to express themselves and connect with a follower base, and for followers to receive advice, entertainment, and even relate personally to content creators. Because of their large following, content creators are often unable to communicate directly with followers through comment responses or direct messages, leading followers to experience and develop one-sided connections to content creators on YouTube. Such one-sided connections have historically occurred toward film and television media figures but have also occurred among YouTube followers toward content creators. These connections are referred to as "parasocial interactions," and, when extending beyond consuming content to perceiving the existence of a relationship with a creator, as a parasocial relationship. This work is focused on understanding the Nerdfighteria community through the conceptual framework of the development of parasocial interactions and relationships through online video streaming in an ecosystem of platforms used by online communities. The Nerdfighteria community evolved from an ongoing YouTube vlog channel called the Vlogbrothers, founded by brothers Hank and John Green in 2007. Beginning with YouTube, the community has flourished on 10+ social media sites including Twitter, Tumblr, Facebook, and more recently, TikTok, Discord, and various audio streaming platforms through their podcasts. This work is anchored in understanding the theory of parasocial relationships through platform design and the lens of emerging adulthood as a unique stage of personal life development. Ten semi-structured interviews and graphic elicitation walkthrough of community members' experiences across platforms were used to understand emerging adults' experiences in the community and to understand the dynamic of interaction across platforms on which the community engages. Major contributions to the literature include (1) Extending the themes of parasocial relationship development through the lens of emerging adulthood, (2) Understanding the dichotomies of connection versus exclusion in multi-platform online communities, (3) Uncovering patterns of participation among emerging adults through means of introduction through late emerging adulthood, and (4) Providing methodological insights for the use of graphic elicitation in remote qualitative data collection for participant agency and equity.

This study aimed to explore how social media use relates to parasocial interactions and existential anxiety in adolescents. It was hypothesized that there would be a connection between social media usage, parasocial interactions, and existential anxiety in this age group. To investigate this, a cross-sectional research design was implemented. Researchers used multistage sampling to select a sample of 700 students from private schools and colleges in the Gujranwala district of Punjab, Pakistan. Social Media Engagement Questionnaire (SMEQ) by Przybylski et al. (2013), the Celebrity Persona Parasocial Interaction Scale (CPPI) by Bocarnea (2007) and the Existential Anxiety Questionnaire (EAQ) by Weems et al. (2004) were used for data collection. Correlation and regression analyses were performed, using SPSS Version 24 for statistical analysis. The Cronbach alpha showed that social media has a positive correlation with parasocial interaction (r = .36, p < .01), while social media usage do not show a significant relationship with existential anxiety (r = .01, p ˃ .01). Further, parasocial interaction was negatively correlated with existential anxiety (r = –.09, p < .05). Regression analysis result shown that social media usage significantly predicts parasocial interaction F (1, 698) = 102.58, p < .001, and have 13% of the variance (R² = .13). In contrast, social media engagement did not significantly predict existential anxiety, F (1, 698) = 0.12, p = .73, R² = .00. However, parasocial interaction was a significant negative predictor of existential anxiety, F (1, 698) = 5.50, p = .019, accounting for less than 1% of the variance (R² = .008). It was concluded that social media usage was related to parasocial interaction and increase in parasocial interaction leads to decrease the existential anxiety. The results of this study add in comprehending these phenomena among Pakistani adolescents, highlighting the impact of social media usage on parasocial interactions and existential anxiety.

PurposeThis study investigates the effects of two types of self-disclosure by influencers (i.e. personal self-disclosure and professional self-disclosure) on followers’ parasocial relationships with them and online engagement with their content, which eventually affect followers’ purchase intentions.Design/methodology/approachThis study collected data based on a cross-sectional survey of 823 social media users. Structural equation modeling analysis was used to test the overall structural model and the mediating roles of parasocial relationships and engagement.FindingsThis study reveals that influencers’ personal self-disclosure has a positive impact on followers’ parasocial relationships with them and online engagement with their content. Interestingly, the results indicate an inverted U-shaped relationship between influencers’ professional self-disclosure and followers’ parasocial relationships, as well as online engagement with the influencers’ content. Furthermore, followers’ parasocial relationships and engagement partially mediate the impact of influencers’ personal and professional self-disclosure on followers’ purchase intentions.Research limitations/implicationsThis study contributes to the literature by revealing the underlying mechanisms of the differential effects of influencers’ personal and professional self-disclosure on followers’ purchase intentions.Practical implicationsThe findings will assist marketers in leveraging influencer-generated content to enhance influencer marketing effectiveness.Originality/valueThis research provides a better understanding of the potential linear and nonlinear effects of influencers’ self-disclosure on followers’ parasocial relationships and engagement in social media marketing.

Background: This study explores the association between YouTube usage and the mental health status of Gen-Z, focusing on the roles of social anxiety and parasocial interaction in YouTube addiction. Purpose: To identify the link between social anxiety (LSAS) and parasocial interaction (PSI) and YouTube addiction (IAT), while also evaluating the role of social support (MSPSS). Methods: Data were collected from 380 respondents in Batam City. The measurement tools included the Internet Addiction Test (IAT), LieBowltz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS), Parasocial Interaction (PSI), and the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS). Results: Multiple regression analysis revealed that 84.5% of the variability in YouTube addiction can be explained by LSAS, PSI, and MSPSS. The F-test results indicated high significance (F = 681.862, p < 0.05). The t-test showed that LSAS (B = 0.609, t = 11.623, p < 0.0001) and PSI (B = 0.707, t = 6.642, p < 0.0001) had a significant influence on IAT, while MSPSS was not significant (B = 0.067, t = 0.893, p = 0.372). The regression model for IAT was IAT = -2.151 + 0.609LSAS + 0.707PSI + 0.067MSPSS, and for PSI was PSI = -2.715 + 0.517LSAS. Conclusion: Confirm that social anxiety and parasocial interaction significantly affect YouTube addiction, while social support does not show a significant influence. Abstrak Latar Belakang: Penelitian ini mengeksplorasi hubungan penggunaan YouTube dengan kesehatan mental anak-anak Gen-Z, dengan fokus pada peran kecemasan sosial dan interaksi parasosial dalam kecanduan YouTube. Tujuan: untuk mengidentifikasi hubungan antara kecemasan sosial (LSAS) dan interaksi parasosial (PSI) dengan kecanduan YouTube (IAT), serta mengevaluasi peran dukungan sosial (MSPSS). Metode: Data dikumpulkan dari 380 responden di Kota Batam. Alat ukur yang digunakan mencakup Internet Addiction Test (IAT), LieBowltz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS), Parasocial Interaction (PSI), dan Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS). Hasil: Analisis regresi berganda mengungkapkan bahwa 84,5% variabilitas kecanduan YouTube dapat dijelaskan oleh LSAS, PSI, dan MSPSS. Hasil uji F menunjukkan signifikansi tinggi (F = 681,862, p < 0,05). Uji t menunjukkan bahwa LSAS (B = 0,609, t = 11,623, p < 0,0001) dan PSI (B = 0,707, t = 6,642, p < 0,0001) memiliki pengaruh signifikan terhadap IAT, sedangkan MSPSS tidak signifikan (B = 0,067, t = 0,893, p = 0,372). Model regresi untuk IAT adalah IAT = -2,151 + 0,609LSAS + 0,707PSI + 0,067MSPSS, dan untuk PSI adalah PSI = -2,715 + 0,517LSAS. Kesimpulan: Kecemasan sosial dan interaksi parasosial berpengaruh signifikan terhadap kecanduan YouTube, sedangkan dukungan sosial tidak menunjukkan pengaruh signifikan.

Extensive research conducted notes that no researchers holistically consider these problems. This research focus on the role of influencers in digital marketing, and the framework consist of a (Hwang, 2018) model with a UGT (User and Gratification Theory), and some variables are influenced by the Persuasion Knowledge Model (Friestad, Wright, 1994). Additionally, researchers have done their research on one YouTube video for a particular brand, so there is a need to research a public domain in which the focus is on all platforms of social media so that the result can be holistic. Further, researchers have conducted their research on generation Y, so there is also a need to conduct this research holistically. The paper used the SEM (Structural Equation Modeling) technique to analyze the data we have collected. The present research is based on a broad framework; this is why the paper has used PLS (Partial Least Square) to evaluate the hypothetical model. The findings reveal that social media users' para-social relationship with the social media influencers has a positive and significant relationship with EWOM by social media users and a negative and not significant relationship with the purchase intention of the social media users. Thus, it shows that para-social relationships increase EWOM, not purchase intention. Moreover, social media users' para-social relationship also depicts a positive and significant relationship between influencers' credibility and EWOM. Moving further, results reveal that para-social relationships with (Parasocial Relationship -> Influencer Credibility -> Brand Trust) and (Influencer Credibility -> Brand Trust -> Purchase Intention) have a partial mediation relationship. Lastly, moderation analysis indicates that there is a two positive (MOD (PR with IC)_ -> Influencer Credibility), (MOD (IC with Willingness)_ -> Willingness to search) and 1 (MOD (IC with PK)_ -> Product Knowledge) moderation relationship. The findings serve as essential evidence for social media influencers that their credibility impacts the purchase intention of the social media user as well as their excellent para-social relationship with the social media users will highly impact their EWOM. This study indicates that the para-social relationship of social media users with the social media influencers enhances the consumers' purchase intention and increases the EWOM (electronic word of mouth) between the social media users.

PurposeThis research aims to unravel the intricate relationship between luxury brands' social media marketing strategies (i.e. communication and engagement) and their impact on consumers' willingness to pay a premium and brand loyalty.Design/methodology/approachA large online consumer panel was used to conduct an online survey of 381 consumers. Partial least squares structural equation modeling was adopted for hypothesis testing.FindingsThe study's outcomes indicated that (1) perceived interactivity and perceived openness positively influence social media brand communication, (2) social media brand communication and engagement are positive determinants for consumer empowerment and parasocial interactions, (3) consumer empowerment and parasocial interactions positively influence willingness to pay a premium and (4) parasocial interactions (but not consumer empowerment) positively influence brand loyalty.Research limitations/implicationsThe study offers significant theoretical implications by unraveling the mechanism of social media marketing for luxury brands, which is under-researched in the current literature. More specifically, the study reveals the process of how social media brand communication and engagement reinforce luxury brand outcomes through parasocial interactions and consumer empowerment. In addition, the study provides empirical evidence to delineate the role of interactivity and openness in enhancing social media brand communication. Moreover, the study extends past research that emphasized initial adoption outcomes such as attitude and purchase intention by probing luxury brand loyalty and willingness to pay a premium.Practical implicationsBy effectively strategizing social media marketing, luxury brand marketers can promote brand loyalty and willingness to pay a premium. Luxury brand marketers should concentrate on establishing parasocial interaction with consumers by designing optimal social media brand communication and engagement. To this end, luxury brand marketers should consider integrating the elements of interactivity and openness in their communication with consumers.Originality/valueThe study offers valuable insights for luxury brand marketers aiming to capitalize on the potential of social media marketing to enhance their revenue generation and customer retention. The study advances past luxury branding research by validating the role of consumer empowerment and parasocial interactions in luxury brands' social media marketing.

Emerging adulthood (age 19-29) can be an exploratory, yet tumultuous time of life. Online methods of connecting with others can be especially effective during this often-fluctuating life stage since the point of entry to engage online is generally low. Among the most popular social media sites, YouTube has had the highest traffic on a video streaming site almost since its inception. YouTube enables content creators to express themselves and connect with a follower base, and for followers to receive advice, entertainment, and even relate personally to content creators. Content creators are often unable to communicate directly, leading followers to experience one-sided connections. Such one-sided connections, or “parasocial interactions,” (PSI) have historically occurred toward film and television figures but have also occurred toward YouTube presenters. When PSI extend beyond consuming content to perceiving the existence of a relational bond with a creator, they form a “parasocial relationship” (PSR). With over three million subscribers, the Nerdfighteria community evolved from a YouTube vlog channel called the Vlogbrothers, founded by Hank and John Green in 2007. This work focuses on understanding the Nerdfighteria community through the conceptual framework of the development of PSI and PSR through video streaming and an ecosystem of platforms used by online communities. Major contributions include (1) Extending the themes of PSR development through the lens of emerging adulthood, (2) Understanding design heuristics supporting the development of PSR online, (3) Providing methodological insights for the use of graphic elicitation in remote qualitative data collection for participant agency and equity.

Social media has introduced influencers and influencer marketing (IM), which is becoming increasingly popular among marketers. The effectiveness of IM is significantly influenced by parasocial interactions (PSI) and parasocial relationships (PSR) that develop between followers and influencers. Historically, a variety of scales have been used to measure PSI and PSR, raising concerns about the comparability of research results. Given the recent growth of IM and the importance of PSI and PSR within it, we aimed to examine how these constructs are measured in IM. We conducted a literature review, analyzing 72 studies focused on the empirical measurement of PSI and PSR. We found a significant heterogeneity in the measurement of PSI and PSR, identifying 26 scales for PSI and 29 scales for PSR, with two scales being used for measuring both PSI and PSR. This high degree of variability among scales that are supposed to measure the same constructs raises questions about the comparability of the results. We identified a critical need for clearer conceptual and empirical differentiation between PSI and PSR, which should be reflected in the development of measurement instruments. It is essential to develop reliable and valid scales that account for these differences and distinctly measure PSI and PSR in IM.

With the rise in accessibility of media personae and celebrities through social media sites, parasocial relationships (PSRs) can offer a meaningful alternative for individuals who experience obstacles in forming real-life relationships. Existing research suggests that PSRs are multidimensional. Building on this, we considered how social media and social anxiety factors relate to the dimensions of PSRs. We examine whether social media engagement, social media addiction, and social interaction anxiety predict parasocial-love and parasocial-friendship. Participants (N = 239) responded to a questionnaire assessing multiple elements of PSRs, social interaction anxiety, social media engagement, and social media addiction. Results revealed social media addiction to be a significant predictor of parasocial-friendship and emotional aspects of parasocial-love. However, physical aspects of the parasocial-love were predicted by social media engagement. Social interaction anxiety was only associated with aspects of parasocial-love but did not predict this type of PSR. These findings suggest that developing a PSR may be strongly linked to social media use and foster social media addiction, whilst face-to-face social interaction anxiety may be less relevant to PSRs with celebrities. The current results also support the suggestion that PSRs with media personalities are multifaceted.

Across social media platforms, communities have formed around shared interests such as reading. A prominent online community is BookTube, a reader community that has formed on YouTube, promoting reader discourse with audience members from around the world. BookTube represents a broader community among readers that is facilitated by YouTube as an interactive media platform. Content creators on BookTube, also known as BookTubers, create both long- and short-form content related to books and reading, such as full book reviews, book recommendations, and bookstore vlogs (video blogs). Especially in long-form content like bookstore vlogs, BookTubers build and reinforce their individual communities, in many cases by establishing parasocial relationships with viewers. As is common practice in online communities on platforms like YouTube, BookTubers directly address audience members to give the impression of mutual participation in a book-shopping trip, reading challenge, or other reading-related practice. Considering the extent to which BookTubers can influence the reading choices or practice of fellow readers and prospective readers alike, especially since popular BookTubers’ videos regularly receive between hundreds of thousands or millions of views, there is room to further study the application and implications of this common community-building approach. This paper will present an analysis of bookstore vlogs from BookTube channels that reflect broader trends in community engagement and contemporary online reader communities. The sample of twenty-seven videos studied for this project were uploaded to YouTube over a six-month period, between September 2022 and February 2023. These videos were manually coded using qualitative content analysis, focusing on ways in which BookTubers directly address readers to promote engagement with both their content and their individual communities. This paper highlights specific BookTubers as case studies within the full sample of videos to represent themes that emerged from the analysis of the videos. Through viewer address, these BookTubers engage viewers in their discussions of books and considerations about reading-related practices, such as by promoting dialogue in comments and going book-shopping “together” with viewers in bookstore vlogs, thereby cultivating reciprocity between the content creators and their fellow readers. This paper contributes to the ongoing scholarly conversation on social media influence and emerging discussions of BookTube and its counterparts on other social media platforms (e.g., TikTok’s #BookTok and Instagram’s Bookstagram) by identifying themes related to the language used by BookTubers to address viewers and invite their ongoing participation and involvement, adding to the growing body of work on online community formation, parasocial relationships, and interactivity.

BackgroundMost studies on social media usage and parasocial relationships (PSRs) have been conducted in WEIRD (Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic) societies, potentially overlooking the unique cultural, social, and economic factors present in non-WEIRD contexts. Examining these phenomena in a non-WEIRD setting is essential for a comprehensive understanding of social media’s global impact.MethodsSecondary data from 574 participants in Qatar who followed Instagram influencers were analyzed using Bayesian analyses aided by Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) algorithms to examine the relationships between social media usage time, PSRs, and demographic factors.FindingsThe analysis results show that, regarding linear effects, a stronger parasocial relationship with Instagram influencer(s) is associated with higher daily social media usage time. Meanwhile, being male, being older, and having higher incomes all have negative associations with daily social media usage time. When parasocial relationships and the three demographic factors are seen in their interactions, negative associations with social media usage were also found in a similar pattern. To elaborate, among those with high parasocial relationship degrees, females, young people, and poor people tend to use social media for more hours each day.ConclusionsThis study highlights that demographic factors such as gender, age, and income in their interactions with parasocial relationships are associated with social media usage time within the non-WEIRD social context of Qatar. The findings underscore the necessity of considering the specific local cultural settings when studying social media behaviors.

Most studies on social media usage and parasocial relationships (PSRs) have been conducted in WEIRD (Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic) societies, potentially overlooking the unique cultural, social, and economic factors present in non-WEIRD contexts. Examining these phenomena in a non-WEIRD setting is essential for a comprehensive understanding of social media's global impact. Secondary data from 574 participants in Qatar who followed Instagram influencers were analyzed using Bayesian analyses aided by Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) algorithms to examine the relationships between social media usage time, PSRs, and demographic factors. The analysis results show that, regarding linear effects, a stronger parasocial relationship with Instagram influencer(s) is associated with higher daily social media usage time. Meanwhile, being male, being older, and having higher incomes all have negative associations with daily social media usage time. When parasocial relationships and the three demographic factors are seen in their interactions, negative associations with social media usage were also found in a similar pattern. To elaborate, among those with high parasocial relationship degrees, females, young people, and poor people tend to use social media for more hours each day. This study highlights that demographic factors such as gender, age, and income in their interactions with parasocial relationships are associated with social media usage time within the non-WEIRD social context of Qatar. The findings underscore the necessity of considering the specific local cultural settings when studying social media behaviors.

Purpose In the developing landscape of social media, deinfluencers, the digital content creators who encourage anti-consumption attitudes and behaviors, are gaining young consumers’ attention. The purpose of this study is to investigate the psychological mechanisms underlying young adult consumers’ engagement with deinfluencers by focusing on wishful identification, parasocial relationship development, self-expansion and anti-consumption attitudes. With parasocial relationship and self-expansion theories as the underlying frameworks, this study examines how an individual’s wishful identification with a deinfluencer fosters parasocial connections and contributes to their self-expansion. Moreover, the authors examine how these constructs are associated with anti-consumption attitudes, revealing a pathway through which media engagement can reshape consumption attitudes. Design/methodology/approach Using Qualtrics, an online survey questionnaire was administered to university students (Generation Z) using convenience sampling. Structural equations modeling was used for data analysis. Findings The findings of this study suggest that young consumers who experience wishful identification with a deinfluencer are likely to develop stronger parasocial connections and experience more self-expansion. A young individual’s parasocial bond strength with a deinfluencer and self-expansion related to the deinfluencer are positively associated. In turn, the parasocial relationship between the individual and the deinfluencer and self-expansion lead to increased anti-consumption attitudes. Originality/value This research contributes to the growing literature on anti-consumption and deinfluencer psychology on social media platforms and offers implications for marketers, educators and policymakers seeking to understand and encourage less materialistic consumer attitudes among young adults.

The Korean wave has become very popular, especially in the field of music often referred to as “Korean pop” or “K-pop”, which is a fusion of various popular music genres from South Korea. With the internet and social media being easily accessible, K-pop in Indonesia is growing very fast. This research looks at the phenomenon of fan behavior towards their idols on social media, which leads to parasocial interactions because the ease of social media makes fans feel close to their idols. In parasocial interaction, a person acts towards media figures as if they are where they are. Parasocial interaction has forms including task attraction, identification attraction, and romantic attraction. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to find out how the form of parasocial interactions carried out by K-pop fans on X social media. This research uses a descriptive methodology that uses interviews and observations to collect data. The results showed that all informants actively engage in parasocial interactions with their idol, NCT, through social media X. This shows that the type of parasocial interaction that K-pop fans do on social media X. This shows that the types of parasocial interactions that occur in NCT fans through social media X are task attraction, identification attraction, and romantic attraction.