Motor Competence in Rural Indonesian Children: Gender and Developmental Differences across Ages 7–12

Children's motor competence is known to have a determinant role in learning and engaging later in complex motor skills and, thus, in physical activity. The development of adequate motor competence is a central aim of physical education, and assuring that pupils are learning and developing motor competence depends on accurate assessment protocols. The MOBAK 1 test battery is a recent instrument developed to assess motor competence in primary physical education. This study used the MOBAK 1 to explore motor competence levels and gender differences among 249 ( Mage = 6.3, SD = 0.5 years; 127 girls and 122 boys) Grade 1 primary school Portuguese children. On independent sample t tests, boys presented higher object movement motor competence than girls (boys: M = 5.8, SD = 1.7; girls: M = 4.0, SD = 1.7; p < .001), while girls were more proficient among self-movement skills (girls: M = 5.1, SD = 1.8; boys: M = 4.3, SD = 1.7; p < .01). On "total motor competence," boys ( M = 10.3, SD = 2.6) averaged one point ahead of girls ( M = 9.1, SD = 2.9). The percentage of girls in the first quartile of object movement was 18.9%, while, for "self movement," the percentage of boys in the first quartile was almost double that of girls (30.3% and 17.3%, respectively). The confirmatory model to test for construct validity confirmed the assumed theoretical two-factor structure of MOBAK 1 test items in this Portuguese sample. These results support the MOBAK 1 instrument for assessing motor competence and highlighted gender differences, of relevance to intervention efforts.

This study aimed to understand the motor competence (MC) level of Czech school-age children determined using the product-oriented Bruininks–Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency (second edition) and to analyze the gender and age differences. The MC level in n = 637 children aged 6.0–11.0 years (46.6% girls) was evaluated using total motor composite and subcategories of fine and gross motor skills: fine manual control, manual coordination, body coordination, and strength and agility. Seventy-one percent of children had at least a satisfactory level of MC. The distribution of the total motor composite score of the Czech sample was uneven, with only 11.0% scoring above average and 29.4% scoring below average. However, we found low-level of MC in almost one third of children. The prevalence of well-below average results was found at 7%. Significant differences were found depending on age (p &lt; .001), where we observed decreased MC with increasing age. Gender differences were reflected in the poorer level of fine motor skills in boys (p &lt; .001). Given the high prevalence of low MC, these findings suggest the need for effective intervention in Czech children as an important prerequisite for comprehensive development in physical, psychosocial, and cognitive aspects.

Perceptions of the effects of physical activity could facilitate or deter future participation. This study explored the differences between gender and motor competence at 14 years of age in the perceptions of likelihood and importance of physical activity outcomes. The sample comprised 1582 14-year-old adolescents (769 girls) from the Western Australian Pregnancy Cohort (Raine) Study. Four motor competence groups were formed from a standardized Neuromuscular Developmental Index score (McCarron 1997). Perceptions of the likelihood and the importance of 15 physical activity outcomes were measured by a questionnaire developed for the NSW Schools Fitness and Physical Activity Survey (Booth et al. 1997). Gender (two) × motor competence (four) analyses of variance and Tukey post hoc were conducted on outcome scores (P < 0.02) using SPSS version 17. Gender differences were found in the perceived likelihood and importance of physical activity outcomes within competition, social friendships and injury domains. Motor competence was significant in the perceived likelihood of physical health (P < 0.001), psychosocial (P < 0.009) and competition (P < 0.002) outcomes, with lower perceptions by the least competent groups. Significantly lower importance was perceived for academic outcomes for 14 year olds categorized with low compared with high motor competence (P < 0.005). Regardless of motor competence and gender, the same health and fun outcomes were ranked the highest in likelihood and the highest in importance. Although level of motor competence at 14 years affected the perceived likelihood of health, social and fun outcomes from future participation in physical activity, adolescents highly valued these outcomes, whereas gender affected competition and winning, outcomes that were less valued. Physical activity that promotes these key and valued outcomes may encourage young people's ongoing involvement in physical activity, especially for those at risk of low participation.

BACKGROUND:Aggressiveness is a complex construct that can influence and be influenced by various factors during childhood. Behavioral aspects such as motor competence, along with psychosocial aspects such as self-perception of social acceptance and self-esteem, can affect aggressive behavior in boys and girls. AIM:This study investigated the relationships between motor competence, self-perceived competence, and aggressive behavior in children aged 7 to 10 years, focusing on gender differences. METHODS:We recruited a total of 87 children from economically disadvantaged and violence-prone areas in Juazeiro do Norte, Ceará, Brazil. Motor competence was assessed with the Test of Gross Motor Development, perception of competence was measured using the Self-Perception Profile for Children scale, and proactive and reactive aggressiveness was assessed with the Peer Aggression Behavior Scale. The differences between boys and girls were verified using Student's t-test. Network analysis was used to verify interactions between the variables investigated. RESULTS:We identified that boys demonstrated positive correlation between aggression and specific motor skills, particularly locomotion skills, while we did not observe this relationship in girls. Centrality measures indicated that locomotion skills were pivotal in boys’ networks, whereas global self-worth was more influential in girls. Social acceptance showed differential correlations with proactive and reactive aggression, suggesting nuanced behavioral dynamics. INTERPRETATION:The findings highlight the necessity of gender-tailored interventions to enhance motor skills, self-perception, and social behaviors in children, contributing to a deeper understanding of developmental dynamics in early childhood. The study underscores the importance of considering sociocultural and gender-specific factors in addressing aggressive behavior and motor competence in children.

ABSTRACTBackground: Assessment is crucial for the quality of teaching and learning in physical education (PE). Currently little is known about the students’ level of achievement in PE and about the parameters used for calculating the PE grades. Although there is evidence that boys are more active outside school than girls and participate more in organized sports, few studies have examined possible differences between genders in PE achievement. Furthermore, despite the current interest in the relationship between motor competencies and cognitive functioning, limited research has examined if PE grades are associated with academic achievement.Purpose: Considering the lack of information on the current level of students’ success in PE, the main aim of this study is to examine the PE grades of Portuguese students in secondary school. Specifically, this study analysis the level of students’ achievement in PE, the relation of PE grades with other school subjects’ grades, compares the PE grades between boys and girls, and presents the PE summative assessment parameters used in schools.Method: Participants were 1936 students (57% girls) from the 10th, 11th and 12th grades (16.8 ± 1.3 years old) attending eleven Portuguese secondary schools. Information was gathered on their grades in PE and in the other school subjects at the end of the school year. Information on the specific assessment parameters used in each school was also collected.Results: The average grades in PE were 14.9 ± 2.3 points (20-point scale). Only ∼1% of students with a final PE grade had a negative performance (<10 points). PE grades were relatively higher than in most of the other school-subjects and for most students (68.7%) the PE classification raised their overall average grade. The level of correlation between grades in PE and in other school subjects was statistically significant (r's = .13 to .29, p < .05) although lower than that between grades in the other school subjects (r's = .44 to .84, p < .01). There were significant differences between girls’ and boys’ grades in PE (14.3 ± 2.3 and 15.9 ± 2.1 points, respectively). The school assessment parameters prioritize physical performance over participation and attitude.Conclusion: The Portuguese students’ level of achievement in PE seems to be very satisfactory. However, as boys have higher grades than girls it is urgent to find appropriate strategies to tackle this problem. The associations found between PE grades and academic achievement could have relevant repercussions considering the current debate about the status of PE and about the relationship between motor and cognitive competencies. It is also relevant that the schools’ summative assessment parameters are based mainly on skill mastery and not on effort and participation. This study provided a brief glance into some aspects of the assessment of PE in Portugal and is it is desirable that future investigations examine the teacher's assessment practices.

Schools have been postulated as ideal environments to encourage physical activity (PA). This study aimed to assess the relationship between PA in school hours, motor competence, and screen time in a sample of Spanish preschool children. Fifty‐seven 4–5‐year‐old preschoolers (n = 32 girls) participated. The Garmin Vivofit wristband was used to measure the PA levels during school hours in a week. Sedentary behavior was estimated through screen‐time hours reported by preschoolers' families and motor competence was assessed by the Athletic Skills Track. The anthropometry (weight/height) and demographic data were also collected. We found that motor competence was significantly associated with PA both in minutes and in steps. Therefore, increased motor competence was related to higher engagement in PA during school hours. No association was found between screen time and PA or proficiency of motor competence. No gender differences were found in any variable assessed. Based on the relationship between motor competence proficiency and the amount of PA in preschool children, our findings support the need for specific strategies to promote fundamental movement skills and increase PA practice from early childhood.

ABSTRACTMotor, psycho‐emotional, cognitive and social variables, plus other factors like gender, influence how schoolchildren perceive their motor competence level. By means of a hierarchical linear regression analysis, this longitudinal study aimed to determine the predictive value that coordination, anxiety, and self‐esteem at the age of 9 years can have on the self‐perceived motor competence variable at the age between 11 and 12 years. Data collection was performed with 224 pupils at a first time point with grade‐4 Primary Education (PEd) pupils (mean age 9.11 ± 0.32 years) and a second time point with grade‐6 PEd pupils (11.49 ± 0.50 years). The results evidenced that coordination, anxiety, and self‐esteem at the age of 9 years predicted self‐perceived motor competence at ages between 11 and 12 years. Gender differences were also observed in these results. For the female gender, age, coordination, and anxiety variables explained the variance for self‐perceived motor competence. For the male gender, age, coordination, and self‐esteem explained the variance for self‐perception competence. This reveals the importance of more globally understanding self‐perceived motor competence in PEd pupils considering the predictive role of psycho‐emotional, motor, and socio‐demographic variables based on gender.

The relationship between motor competencies and academic achievement in children from disadvantaged backgrounds remains unclear. This study proposes a theoretical framework titled "Motor Competency-Academic Achievement Link Based on Cognitive Demand Hierarchy" to guide subsequent investigations into the association between hierarchically structured motor competencies and academic achievement among children from disadvantaged backgrounds. We hypothesize that visual-motor integration within the sensorimotor integration dimension, which requires active higher-order cognitive involvement, may exhibit a significant association with academic achievement. A cross-sectional study design was employed, with a sample of 155 children aged 6-12 years from a rural primary school in a mountainous region of Yunnan, China. Hierarchical motor competencies were assessed, including speed, hand dribbling, and visual-motor integration measured using a modified five-figure version of the Bender-Gestalt test. Academic achievement was operationalized as a composite index derived from standardized final examination scores. Hierarchical multiple regression analysis was conducted to examine the extent to which each motor competency level was uniquely associated with academic achievement, while controlling for demographic covariates. Hierarchical regression analysis, controlling for grade, gender and BMI, revealed that visual-motor integration was a significant correlate of overall academic achievement (β = 0.436, p < 0.001). Domain-specific analyses showed that visual-motor integration significantly correlated with both mathematics (β = 0.419, p < 0.001) and Chinese language (β = 0.393, p < 0.001) performance. Basic speed measures showed a significant association with Chinese language only when grade was controlled. However, sensitivity analyses omitting grade indicated that this association was not robust and was likely confounded by developmental differences. In contrast, the correlates between visual-motor integration and academic achievement remained statistically significant across different nutritional status groups and were confirmed in multiple sensitivity analyses. The present findings provide preliminary evidence that, in resource-limited settings, children's visual-motor integration may be a domain-general correlate of academic achievement. In contrast, automated motor skills did not emerge as a significant correlate of academic achievement. Speed does not show an independent association after accounting for grade-related maturational differences.

Physical activity and motor competence (MC) have been considered to be closely related and prevent childhood obesity. The aim of the study was two-fold: to examine MC measured with two different tools in relation to individual, family, and environmental correlates and to investigate gender differences in MC. The Test of Gross Motor Development-Third Edition (TGMD-3) was administered to three- to seven-year-old children (n = 945), while the Körperkoordinationstest für Kinder (KTK) was also used for five- to seven-year-old children (n = 444). The parent questionnaire (n = 936) included questions about individual (e.g., participation in organized sports), family (e.g., parents’ education level), and environmental (e.g., access to sports facilities) correlates. The children’s temperament was assessed using the Colorado Childhood Temperament Inventory (CCTI) questionnaire. Data were analyzed using one-way analysis of variance and linear mixed-effects regression models. The regression models explained 57% and 38% of the variance in TGMD-3 and KTK, respectively. Individual correlates, including older age, more frequent participation in sports, and specific temperament traits of activity and attention span-persistence, were the strongest predictors for better MC. Small gender differences were found in both assessment tools, albeit in a different manner. In conclusion, socioecological correlates of MC in young children are multidimensional, and individual correlates appear to be the most important predictors of MC. Importantly, the correlates can differ according to the MC assessment tools.

Because the criteria used for diagnosing between generalized joint hypermobility (GJH) and musculoskeletal complaints, as well as relations between GJH and an insufficient motor development and/or a reduced physical activity level differ, the prevalence of GJH varies considerably. The aim of this study was to survey the prevalence of GJH defined by a Beighton score at >or=4, >or=5, or >or=6 positive tests of 9 and benign joint hypermobility syndrome (BJHS) in Danish primary school children at 8 years of age. A second aim was to compare children with and without GJH and BJHS regarding motor competence, self-reported physical activity, and incidence of musculoskeletal pain and injuries. A cross-sectional study of 524 children in the second grade from 10 public schools was performed. A positive response rate was obtained for 416 (79.4%) children, and 411 (78.4%) children were clinically examined and tested for motor competence, whereas questionnaire response to items comprising musculoskeletal pain and injuries, in addition to daily level and duration of physical activity, corresponded to 377 (71.9%) children. In total, 29% of the children had GJH4, 19% had GJH5, 10% had GJH6, and 9% had BJHS, with no gender difference. There was no difference in daily level and duration of physical activity and in frequency of musculoskeletal pain and injuries between those with and without GJH. Children with >or=GJH5 as well as with >or=GJH6 performed better in the motor competence tests. Motor competence and physical activity are not reduced in primary school children at 8 years of age with GJH or BJHS. It is recommended that a potential negative influence on the musculoskeletal system over time, as a result of GJH, be investigated by longitudinal studies.

The obesity epidemic and declining youth fitness levels are of great concern (USDHHS, 2000), however, it remains unclear how motor competence, (effective demonstration of a variety of sequenced motor tasks), may influence fitness levels. Few studies have examined the role of motor skill competency in improving children's fitness and physical activity levels. PURPOSE: To determine the relationship between children's physical fitness and motor competence. METHODS: After attaining consent, five FITNESSGRAM assessments (curl-ups, pushups, Pacer, sit-and-reach, BMI) were conducted with 47 children (Mage = 10.19 ± 1.35). The participants were familiarized with the three authentic motor skill testing protocols (basketball, educational gymnastics, and throwing) and then videotaped. These protocols were valid, reliable measures that were slightly altered by age for appropriateness. Motor skills were scored in accordance to criteria, on a 0 to 3 scale, representing the consistency of proper technique. An inter-rater reliability of .74 was achieved. RESULTS: Pearson correlations indicated a significant relationship between motor skill competency and physical fitness (r = .40) (p < .01). Despite the low aerobic demand of the testing protocols, aerobic (r = .67) (p < .01) and muscle fitness (r = .55) (p < .01) had a strong association with motor competency. BMI (r = .13) (p >.01) was neither a contributor nor barrier to motor competency. All fitness components were significantly correlated to basketball (r = .46) (p < .01) and gymnastics (r = .40) (p < .01), but not significantly correlated to throwing (r=.15) (p > .01). There were gender differences in the gymnastics sequence task. CONCLUSION: These findings indicate that aerobic capacity and muscle fitness influenced motor competency, while BMI made little contribution to motor performance. Therefore, those who attain aerobic and muscle fitness, regardless of body composition, are more likely to be proficient at complex motor tasks.

Motor competence can affect participation in sports and physical activity among adolescents. The aim of the current study was to investigate the relationship between motor competence, body composition, handgrip strength (HGS) and sports par¬ticipation in 13-16 years old adolescents, as well as to examine gender differences. Data for 177 boys and 153 girls were collected and analysed. Body composition was assessed by measuring height, weight, waist circumference, body fat percentage (FAT%), and calculating body mass index (BMI). Motor competence was determined by using the Movement Assessment Battery test (MABC-2) which consists of eight tasks that measure aiming and catching, balance, and manual dexterity. Handgrip strength was assessed by using hand dynamometer and the question about sports participation was retained from a detailed questionnaire for the current study. The results of the study show that girls have better motor competence in the 13-, 14- and 15-year-old age groups (13 years girls: 10.3, boys: 8.7; 14 years girls: 10.3, boys: 9.2; 15 years girls: 10.1, boys: 8.6, respectively), but there was no significant difference between the genders in the 16-year-old age group (girls: 9.6, boys: 9.0, respectively). HGS had a positive correlation with FAT% (r=0.5, p&amp;lt;0.05) and waist circumference in 13- year-old girls (r=0.5, p&amp;lt;0.05), BMI in boys age of 16 (r=0.3, p&amp;lt;0.05), and FAT% (r=0.4, p&amp;lt;0.05) and MABC-2 in girls 16-years old (r=0.6, p&amp;lt;0.05). Participation in organized sports activities was the most important factor when predicting motor competence in 13- to 16-year-old adolescents (t=3.7, p&amp;lt;0.05). Future studies should consider the development of gender differences from a long-term perspective, and in that sense, longitudinal studies could give better explanations.

The inhibition or integration of primary reflexes is fundamental in the child's development. If this does not occur in an adequate manner, reflexes may remain active and children may develop,poor motor competence. For this reason, the aims of the study were to analyze the relationships among the persistence of reflexes and motor competence in children, and to assess gender differences. The Primitive Reflex Assessment protocol and the Movement Assessment Battery for Children were used. The sample consisted of 233 children in early childhood education (M age = 5.03, SD = 1.21) from eight schools, located in a central region of Spain. First, they were administered the Mabc-2 battery to determine their motor competence. Two groups were made, children with low motor competence and children with typical development or high motor competence. The results indicated that participants with lower reflex inhibition showed lower motor competence, and boys showed a higher presence of non-inhibited reflexes. Given the relationship between primary reflexes and motor competence, it can be concluded that not only early detection is necessary, but also motor interventions that favour reflex inhibition.

Physical activity, physical fitness and motor competence are important health-related constructs. However, the relationship among them, particularly for children and adolescents, is still unclear. In this study, motor competence (measured by the McCarron Assessment of Neuromuscular Development), pedometer-determined physical activity and physical fitness (aerobic fitness, muscle strength, muscle endurance, flexibility and body composition) were examined in a cohort of 1585 adolescents (771 girls, 814 boys) of mean age 14.06 years. Significant gender differences were observed for all measures except motor competence. Apart from hip and shoulder flexibility, males outperformed females. For both males and females, motor competence was associated with all fitness measures, physical activity was associated only with aerobic fitness and aerobic fitness was associated with physical activity, motor competence, BMI and chest pass. Among males, aerobic fitness was also associated with all other fitness tests. The correlations were, in general, moderate to weak. The results challenge the current focus on physical activity rather than physical fitness as the preferred intervention.

A child version of the Iowa Gambling task was used to explore the developmental and gender differences in decision making of 4-year-olds (N = 141). The task required children to choose between two decks: a deck with higher immediate rewards and a deck with higher future rewards. Developmental differences between young (4.0–4.5) and older (4.6–4.11) children were found, with older 4-year-olds choosing more from the deck with higher future rewards. Gender differences were found for decision-making strategy. It is suggested that these differences in approaches might account for the pattern of gender differences found in past research.