Motivational climate through the eyes of teachers: a scoping review based on achievement goal theory

The purpose of the present experiment was to investigate whether the motivational climates (MCs) drawn from achievement goal and self-determination theories would affect perceived competence and the use of claimed self-handicapping. Specifically, this study examined the effects of performance MC, mastery MC and need-supportive MC on these two variables. In the context of high school physical education, 37 participants had the opportunity to claim handicaps before performing an isometric resistance task in a given MC. This procedure was repeated three times at one-week intervals so that all participants were assigned to each of the three MCs. Consistent with our hypotheses, students claimed handicaps less in the need-supportive than in the performance MC. In addition, when data from girls and boys were separated, girls reported significantly greater perceived competence in the need-supportive MC than in the performance and mastery MCs. The theoretical and applied implications of these finding are discussed.

Based on Duda’s (2013) hierarchical and multidimensional conceptualization, this research integrates motivational climate dimensions from Achievement Goal Theory and Self-Determination Theory to investigate the constructs of empowering/disempowering motivational climates. We aimed to investigate the relationship between perceived coach-created motivational climate and prosocial-antisocial behaviours and determine whether moral disengagement mediated this relationship. 423 athletes completed self-reported questionnaires. The results showed that empowering motivational climate had a positive direct association with prosocial behaviour towards opponents/teammates. Disempowering motivational climate had a positive direct relationship with antisocial behaviour towards opponents/teammates. Also, disempowering motivational climate was indirectly related to antisocial behaviour towards teammates, antisocial behaviour towards opponents and prosocial behaviour towards opponents via moral disengagement. These findings suggest that athletes’ perception of coach-created empowering motivational climate is likely to enhance athletes’ prosocial behaviours, whereas athletes’ perception of coach-created disempowering motivational climate may result in their higher antisocial behaviours which is mediated by moral disengagement. The findings emphasize the role of perceived coach-created motivational climates in athletes’ moral behaviours, provide useful information on the mediating role of moral disengagement in this relationship and suggest practical implications for sports coaches, sports psychologists and sport executives who aim to create a positive sports environment for athletes.

Interactions with parents are known to have a significant impact on children's self-esteem. In this study, designed to test propositions derived from Achievement Goal Theory and Self-Determination Theory, we assessed the influence of perceived parent-initiated mastery and ego motivational climates on self-esteem and self-esteem change in competitive youth swimmers over the course of a 32-week sport season. At each of three measurement points (early, mid, and late season), mastery climate scores on the Parent-Initiated Motivational Climate Questionnaire-2 scale were positively related to global self-esteem scores and to a measure of relative motivational autonomy that reflects the intrinsic-extrinsic motivation continuum, whereas ego climate scores were negatively related to self-esteem and autonomy. Longitudinal analyses revealed that early-season mastery climate predicted positive changes in self-esteem over the course of the season, whereas ego climate predicted decreased self-esteem. Consistent with predictions derived from Self-Determination Theory, a meditational analysis revealed that these self-esteem changes were mediated by changes in autonomous motivation.

El clima motivacional hacia el deporte representa uno de los principales factores psicosociales más estudiados en el ámbito educativo de la Educación Física y la práctica deportiva, a través de la teoría de metas de logro y de la autodeterminación, pues en función del tipo de orientación, se puede constituir el proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje y los estilos de vida saludables. Este estudio realizado en las ocho provincias de Andalucía para una muestra de 775 estudiantes universitarios (futuros docentes) que cursan la mención de Educación Física en el grado de Educación Primaria, tiene como objetivo definir el clima motivacional percibido hacia el deporte, así como establecer las principales diferencias en función del sexo. Como instrumento de evaluación, se empleó el cuestionario PMCSQ-2 y un cuestionario de tipo ad-hoc para el registro de las variables de carácter sociodemográfico. Se reportaron diferencias estadísticamente significativas para las dos dimensiones del clima motivacional según el sexo de los sujetos de estudio, donde se determinó que tanto en el clima tarea como en el ego, los estudiantes varones mostraban valores más elevados. Se enfatiza la importancia que poseen los docentes de Educación Física a la hora de fomentar un modelo de clima motivacional en el grupo de clase, donde cada vez es más común dar importancia al proceso frente a los resultados, se potencia el trabajo cooperativo y se valora el esfuerzo para adquirir una mejora.

Background: Physical educators are faced with trying to provide motivating and enjoyable experiences in physical education. Sport Education is an instructional model that aims to provide positive motivational sport experiences by simulating the features of authentic sport. Research support for Sport Education is positive, however, the effects on student motivation and the motivational climate are not well understood. Purpose: To investigate the influence of the Sport Education model on student motivation (intrinsic/extrinsic motivation, goal orientations, and perceived motivational climate) in secondary physical education. Setting: Six classes were selected according to teacher and class availability in the sports of soccer, hockey, and football codes in a co-educational government school. Participants: Participants were 115 (male = 97, female = 18) Year-8 students (aged 13–14 years), in a Sport Education condition (n = 41) and a Traditional condition (n = 74). Measures: At pre- and post-test, all participants completed three questionnaires: the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory, the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire, and the Perceived Motivational Climate in Sport Questionnaire. Intervention: Participants completed either a Sport Education condition or a Traditional condition for one double period (100 minutes) one day per week for 10 weeks (Sport Education condition) or for five weeks (Traditional condition). The Sport Education condition incorporated six distinctive features: seasons, affiliation, formal competition, record keeping, festivity, and a culminating event. The Traditional condition used whole-group instruction led by the teacher. Research design: The study used a non-equivalent control group design with pre- and post-test procedures. The independent variable was teaching condition and the dependent variable was student motivation (assessed by intrinsic motivation, goal orientations, and motivational climate). The groups were already established and selected for convenience purposes. Data collection and analysis: Participants completed pre-test measures and then participated in their pre-established classes. Post-test measures were completed in the last class in each condition. A reliability analysis on measures was conducted using Cronach's alphas. A pre-test manipulation check was performed to check for any initial differences in motivation. To compare the difference in changes between conditions on motivation, a series of 2 × 2 repeated measures analyses of variance were conducted. A comparison of the relationship between motivation measures was conducted using Pearson's product moment correlation coefficients. Findings: There was a significant difference between the conditions on changes in perceived competence, task orientation, and mastery climate, with the Traditional condition decreasing significantly from pre- to post-test compared with the Sport Education condition. There were no significant differences on interest/enjoyment, effort/importance, pressure/tension, ego orientation, or performance climate. A mastery climate was positively related to task orientation and intrinsic motivation and a performance climate was related to ego orientation. Conclusions: The Sport Education condition was more successful in maintaining high levels of intrinsic motivation, task orientation, and mastery climate than the Traditional condition. That is, the Traditional condition was associated with a decrease in adaptive aspects of motivation for students, whereas the Sport Education condition maintained existing levels of motivation.

Physical Education (PE) teachers’ adoption of motivational teaching behaviours is a critical determinant of students’ quality of experience in lessons. Drawing from achievement goal theory (AGT) and self-determination theory (SDT), extensive evidence has substantiated the consequences of teachers emphasising a specific type of motivational climate (AGT) or interpersonal style (SDT). However, less attention has been paid to critically appraising the antecedents of teachers’ behaviours underpinning a particular climate or style. Therefore, the aim of the present scoping review was to evaluate the extant literature addressing the determinants of teachers’ motivational behaviours in PE from AGT and SDT perspectives. Nine databases were searched to identify 94 studies that met the inclusion criteria. Findings revealed that more studies had sought to understand the reasons for teaching behaviours from a SDT approach than from the lens of AGT. Moreover, multiple personal and contextual factors were shown to be associated with, or to impact upon, teachers’ behaviours. Future research should adopt a more theoretically integrative approach to advancing our understanding of teachers’ motivational behaviours, as well as examine additional antecedents that might be suitable for intervention with pre- and in-service PE teachers.

Background and purpose Although existing evidence is predominantly based on cross-sectional data, there are limited longitudinal studies exploring how different dimensions of motivational climate influence basic psychological needs over time. Grounded in self-determination and achievement goal theories, this study investigates the longitudinal relationship between motivational climate and basic need satisfaction in Finnish students, emphasizing their reciprocal associations. Methods A total of 1063 Finnish Grade 5 students (mean age = 11.26 years, SD = .31) participated in the study. The Motivational Climate in Physical Education Scale and the Psychological Needs in Physical Education Scale were completed annually for five consecutive years. Results The Random Intercept Cross Lagged Panel Model analyses revealed that the levels of the task-, autonomous-, and relatedness-involving climate were positively linked to autonomy and relatedness need satisfaction. On the other hand, the ego-involving climate was associated with competence and relatedness needs. With respect to the long-term reciprocal associations among the variables, there were consistent associations between autonomy-involving climate at one time point and relatedness and autonomy need satisfaction a year later. Similarly, relatedness-involving climate was linked to relatedness need satisfaction. In addition, autonomy need satisfaction was positively related with both task- and ego-involving climates, and relatedness need satisfaction with relatedness-involving climate. Furthermore, girls reported higher perceptions of task-involving climate compared to boys, while boys exhibited higher levels of ego-, autonomy-, and relatedness-involving climate, as well as need satisfaction, compared to girls. Conclusion This study offers longitudinal evidence on the interaction between motivational climate and need satisfaction, providing preliminary evidence for the potential of reciprocal associations.

The aim of the study was to investigate the relationships between motivational climate, perceived competence, self-determined motivation towards physical education (PE) and the fundamental movement skills of Finnish secondary school students. A sample of 370 seventh-grade PE students (girls n = 189; boys n = 181; mean age = 13.08; SD = 0.25) completed measures pertaining to motivational climates, perceived competence, regulation of motivation, and fundamental movement skills. Path analysis revealed results generally consistent with the theoretical tenets of the self-determination and the achievement goal theories by demonstrating that a task-involving motivational climate influenced perceived competence, which in turn affected more self-determined motivation towards PE. Furthermore, results revealed that this motivational sequence was associated with increased balance skill. A sequence consisting of task-involving climate, intrinsically regulated motivation, and balance skills was also observed. Additionally, the results indicated that task-involving motivational climate influenced perceived competence, in turn influencing manipulative and locomotor skills. Finally, an ego-involving climate was found to be a marginally positive predictor of manipulative skills.

Motivational Climate in United States Army Reserve Officer Training Corps Physical Training: Implications for Leadership Development, Retention, and Intervention

IntroductionUnlike sport activities conducted in Physical Education classes, organized competitive sports are freely chosen by children, and certain commitment on the part of the child is needed. Within this context of skills and achievements, motivational factors play a key role in the long-term effects of sport participation on psychosocial development (Garcia-Mas et al., 2011). The physical and psychological well-being of an athlete is not automatically promoted (Duda & Balaguer, 2007; Quested & Duda, 2011), rather it depends upon the social settings in which it develops and is, in turn, closely linked to the role played by the coach and significant others (Roberts & Treasure, 2012; SanchezMiguel, Leo, Sanchez-Oliva, Amado, & Garcia-Calvo, 2013). The importance ofthe coach and his influence on athletes has been widely addressed (Sousa, Cruz, Torregrosa, Vilches, & Viladrich, 2006). According to the approach adopted by the trainer, an athlete's satisfaction with and adherence to a given sport may be enhanced or compromised, and this may impact self-motivation, level of involvement and level of commitment (MartinAlbo, Nunez, & Navarro, 2003 ; Ortiz, Arriaza, & Jeria, 2011; Weiss, 2015). The consequence of all this is that the sport environment becomes a setting of socializing influences playing a pivotal role in forming a child's personal character (Torregrosa et al., 2007).According to Castillo, Balaguer, Duda and Garcia (2004), the social cognitive theory of goal orientations (Nicholls, 1989) is a conceptual framework that helps our understanding of the motives and processes whereby children take up a sports activity or abandon such an activity. Achievement goal theory tries to identify the different dispositional and environmental factors that affect achievement motivation in an athlete.According to this construct, dispositional factors reflect the criterion used by athletes to measure their competence level and according to which they subjectively define success and failure. Situational factors refer to the signals emitted by persons such as relatives, friends, or coach that are perceived by the athlete and through which are defined the keys to success or failure, described by Ames (1992) as the motivational climate. Thus, depending on how the context is perceived by the athlete, a competitive, performing, ego-orientated or a mastery, task-orientated motivational climate is created (Ames, 1992; Newton, Duda, & Yin, 2000; Nicholls, 1989). It has been shown that the perception of a mastery motivational climate favors sport performance, enjoyment, satisfaction (Donkers, Martin, Paradis, & Anderson, 2015; Sousa, Torregrosa, Viladrich, Villamarin, & Cruz, 2007), commitment (Leo, Sanchez, Sanchez, Amado, & Garcia, 2009; Lukwu & Lujan, 2011; Sanchez-Oliva, Leo, GonzalezPonce, Chamorro, & Garcia-Calvo, 2012) and psychological well-being by improving confidence and self-esteem and by reducing anxiety (Balaguer, Duda, Atienza, & Mayo, 2002). In contrast, a climate striving to improve performance produces less psychological well-being, greater anxiety relative to performance and less satisfaction with the sport environment (Balaguer, Duda, & Crespo, 1999).However, from a perspective of disposition, both goal orientations rather than being dichotomous show an orthogonal behavior (Nicholls, 1989). In other words, as explained by Cervello, Escarti and Balague (1999), when assessing motivational orientation we may find athletes simultaneously orientated towards varying intensities of both mastery and ego. Hence, athletes may vary their dispositional goal orientations according to their socializing experiences in the sport context (Castillo, Duda, Alvarez, Merce, & Balaguer, 2011; Gomez-Lopez, Granero-Gallegos, Baena-Extremera, & Abraldes, 2014), as is the case of the motivational climate (Ames, 1992) set by the trainer.Although such variations exist, this has not been reflected in most studies, which have concluded that if trainers wish to potentiate the greater well-being of their athletes, they should pursue a task-involved motivational climate that will orient players towards adopting mastery goals in their sport and at all costs avoid an ego-based motivational environment. …

The influence of teacher-initiated motivational climate on cognitive, affective, and behavioural student outcomes has been highlighted as an area of future research. This study, grounded in self-determination and achievement goal theories, examined how teacher-initiated motivational climate can increase student motivation and positive affective responses in physical education (PE) along with their physical activity (PA) participation, and whether motivational climate has a longitudinal effect across middle school. In addition, we aimed to examine the role of positive affect in explaining the relationship between motivation in PE and out-of-school PA participation. Our sample comprised 540 adolescents (277 boys, 263 girls, median age 13) and they responded to self-report questionnaires measuring their perception of motivational climate in PE classes (Motivation Climate in Physical Education Questionnaire), motivational regulations (Physical Education Motivation Scale), enjoyment (Sport Enjoyment Scale), and PA participation (Health Behaviour in School-aged Children Research Protocol) twice at both Grades 7 and 9. Structural equation model analyses produced three main findings. First, the study showed that intrinsic motivation was the vital component of motivation that transferred the effect of learning-oriented climate to long-lasting enjoyment in PE context. Second, performance-oriented climate had a long-lasting effect on introjected and extrinsic regulations and amotivation. Finally, the study showed enjoyable experiences in PE to transfer intrinsic motivation into PA participation. The findings of the study extend our understanding on how teacher-initiated motivational climate in PE can lead to an increase in PA participation during middle school.

Achievement Goal Theory (AGT) is an interactionist theory that predicts that motivation is determined by the interaction of dispositional goals and the motivational climate. The ‘matching hypothesis’ predicts that that motivation is optimal when there is congruency between dispositional goal orientation (DGO) and motivational climate (MC). The matching hypothesis is tacitly accepted as an important element in goal setting interventions by many practitioners, but few studies have tested the short-term motivational effects of matching on sport tasks. This issue was addressed by examining the interaction between DGO and MC on objective measures of performance of 138 advanced athletes (Experiment 1) and 139 recreational athletes (Experiment 2) on a 400 m run, and on 154 recreational athletes’ ability to shoot basketball free-throws (Experiment 3). Moderated hierarchical regression revealed that the ego MC improved performance of more advanced athletes by 2 seconds, irrespective of their DGO (Experiment 1) and improved performance of recreational athletes by 2.4 seconds, unless the athletes had both high task and low ego DGO (Experiment 2). The MC had no effect on free-throw performance, but the ego MC significantly reduced confidence (Experiment 3). The facilitatory effect of ego climate on performance was mediated by the value athletes attached to ego goals, such that bigger improvement was seen in athletes who most valued ego goals. The parsimonious interpretation of these data is that aligning MC with DGO does not optimize short-term motivation. However, an ego MC can elicit enhanced performance in short duration tasks that rely on cardiovascular effort.

This study examined the effects of the delivery of a school-tailored Empowering PE™ workshop and subsequent Professional Development Programme (PDP) using Community of Practice principles within one secondary school Physical Education (PE) department. Employing a mixed-methods longitudinal design, the research assessed PE teachers' understanding of motivation and motivational strategies, Senior Leadership Team perceptions of the PDP's impact, and pupils' motivation and engagement in PE. The intervention pulled from Achievement Goal Theory and Self-Determination Theory, adopting Duda's theoretically integrated conceptualization of empowering and disempowering motivational climates. Qualitative data from interviews, focus groups, and reflections revealed significant perceived benefits for teachers' understanding and implementation of motivational strategies, as well as perceived improvements in pupil engagement and motivation. Quantitative data (147 Year 9 pupils aged 13–14 years, M = 13.6, SD = 0.4; 81 boys, 64 girls) revealed no significant differences over time in perceptions of the motivational climate and their motivation to engage in PE. Overall, this study contributes to the growing body of evidence supporting the benefits of creating empowering environments in physical education. The findings however highlight the complexity of implementing and assessing the effects of motivational climate interventions in PE settings and underscore the importance of sustained, theory-informed professional development for teachers. Areas for future research on interventions (and testing their effectiveness) to optimize the motivation climate in PE, pupil motivation and teacher professional development are provided.

Purpose: Guided by Duda’s hierarchical conceptualization of the motivational climate that draws from self-determination and achievement goal theories, this study provides initial evidence of the psychometric properties of the Empowering and Disempowering Motivational Climate Questionnaire in physical education (EDMCQ-PE). Method: Questionnaire based with two samples of Welsh secondary school pupils. Results: Exploratory structural equation modeling provided a better fit of the data to the hypothesized model than confirmatory factor analysis. Moreover, a two-factor composite (i.e., empowering and disempowering) lower-order model provided an acceptable fit and clear parameter estimates. This two-factor model also demonstrated scalar gender measurement invariance. Discussion: The evidence from this study suggests the EDMCQ-PE is a promising scale for the assessment of secondary school pupils’ perceptions of the empowering and disempowering features of the motivational climate created by their physical education teachers. Conclusion: Moving forward, the statistical approach employed in this paper can inform future studies that develop questionnaire methodology in physical education and from an applied perspective; the EDMCQ-PE can be used by researchers and teachers to assess the motivational climate in PE and help inform the pedagogy underpinning teachers’ classes.

Initial validation of the coach-created Empowering and Disempowering Motivational Climate Questionnaire (EDMCQ-C)