Mother’s late return home from work, family relationship, and locus of control of children: evidence from Japanese adolescents

With the rapid increase in women's labor force participation in Asia, a greater understanding of the impact of maternal employment on parenting and child development in Asia is much needed. The present study examined the concurrent relations between maternal employment status and family characteristics (e.g., socioeconomic status/SES, family structure) in Taiwanese families, and the unique relations of maternal employment and family SES to maternal stress, parenting beliefs, and preschoolers' socioemotional adjustment. In a school-based sample of 511 preschoolers (age range = 4-6 years, 52.9% girls), their mothers, and teachers in Taipei and Taitung, mothers reported their employment status, family characteristics, perceived stress and parenting beliefs. Mothers and teachers rated preschoolers' adjustment. Results showed that compared to unemployed mothers in Taiwan, employed mothers were more likely to come from families with higher SES and fewer children, and nuclear (vs. extended) families. Structural equation modeling was used to test the hypothesized model. Mothers from lower-SES families reported higher stress and higher endorsement of coercive parenting, and lower endorsement of authoritative parenting than mothers from higher-SES families. Controlling for SES, employed mothers endorsed higher coercive parenting than unemployed mothers. Mothers' endorsement of authoritative parenting was associated with better child adjustment by mothers' (but not teachers') reports, whereas maternal stress and coercive parenting were associated with poorer child adjustment (by mothers' reports only). In sum, maternal employment was intricately associated with family SES in Taiwanese families, and the two contextual factors shape parenting and child adjustment in different processes.

This chapter focuses on home environmental aspects of the family setting that are related to maternal employment and children's development. Hence, one of the major goals of this research program is to examine how maternal employment is related to the family setting and how this family setting, in turn, may be related to children's development. It examines maternal employment status in the context of the proximal family environment and examines the short- and long-term impact of maternal employment status on the cognitive, social-emotional, and physical home environment and children's development. The chapter focuses upon maternal employment and children's development through the early childhood years, through age seven, and will also include specific analyses of data available at age eight. In order to understand the intricate network of relationships between maternal employment status on the one hand and children's development on the other, analyses relating educational attitudes, fathers' involvement, and children's development were conducted.

The coverage of complete basic immunization in the working area of UPTD Puskesmas Astambul, Banjar Regency, has shown a declining trend. In 2022, only 64.16% of 572 targeted children were immunized, dropping to 61.8% of 565 targets in 2023. Kelampaian Ilir Village had the lowest coverage, with only 46.9% (15 of 34 toddlers) receiving complete immunization. To analyze factors associated with immunization completeness among children aged 2–5 years in Kelampaian Ilir Village, Astambul Subdistrict, in 2024. This correlational analytic study used a cross-sectional design. The population was all toddlers aged 2–5 years targeted for complete immunization, totaling 82 individuals, using total sampling. The study was conducted from August to December 2024. Independent variables included maternal knowledge, employment status, and family support. The dependent variable was immunization completeness. Data were collected via questionnaires and analyzed using the Chi-Square test. Maternal knowledge was significantly associated with immunization completeness (p = 0.032); mothers with good knowledge had more children with complete immunization. Family support was not significantly associated (p = 0.064); 56.9% of supported families still had incomplete immunization. Maternal employment status also showed no significant association (p = 0.186). Maternal knowledge is significantly associated with immunization completeness, while family support and maternal employment status are not significantly related.

Recent investigations of the relation between maternal employment and the stability of infant attachments have implied that maternal employment introduces a stressful, unpredictable element into family life. To assess the effect of maternal employment per se, stable and changing maternal employment status were distinguished in this study. Classifications of the quality of infant-mother and of infant-father attachments were made for 59 children at 12 and 20 months of age using the Ainsworth strange situation paradigm. The stability of attachments from 12 to 20 months was examined in 4 groups defined by maternal employment status. 3 of these groups (nonemployed, part-time employed, full-time employed) were characterized by no change in maternal employment status from several months prior to the first assessment of attachment through the 20-month assessment; the fourth group was characterized by maternal employment status that changed between the 2 assessments of attachment. Among the stable conditions of maternal employment status there was no indication of differences in the stability of attachment to either parent whether the mother was employed or not, indicating that maternal employment can lend as much stability to family relationships as the condition of maternal nonemployment. No changes in the quality of attachment to mother and relatively frequent changes in attachment to father (46%) were present when mother changed employment status. The basis for this difference is discussed in terms of maternal versus paternal response to alterations in life-style initiated by mother's employment changes.

Of women in labor force, it mothers with children at home whose numbers have grown fastest in recent decades. In 1987, 71% of mothers with husbands present in household and children between ages of 6 and 17 years and 57% of those with husbands present and children under 6 were employed. In 1973 (roughly year students in this study were born), those figures were only 50% and 33%, respectively (U.S. Department of Labor, 1989). The research on effects of maternal employment on child indicate mixed results. In a review of research on maternal employment and children's achievement for National Academy of Sciences, Heyns (1982) concluded that the children of working mothers differ very little from children of non-working mothers [on achievement] (p. 238). Another review published 2 years before found that there were measurable differences in academic performance and other measures of children's well-being depending on maternal employment status (Hoffman, 1980). Each has maintained and elaborated her position since (Heyns & Catsambis, 1986; Hoffman, 1989). Surely if maternal employment makes a difference to child it likely to be exhibited in parent-child relationships. Nock and Kingston (1988), for example, found differences in amount of time spend with their children depending on maternal employment status, although differences were most pronounced for of preschoolers and in non-child-centered time. Parents may interact with their child differently, and may in particular be involved in their child's education differently, depending on employment of mother outside home. Involvement in education likely to be very important for school-age children. We have very little knowledge about how relationships between and adolescents are influenced by amount of time mother spends at work outside home, and how that may influence critical transition of child from elementary to high school. This article examines two questions: First, does maternal employment status make a difference in how are involved with their eighth-grade adolescent child, and, if so, how? Second, in what ways does parent involvement intervene in relationship between maternal employment and mathematics achievement of adolescent child? A better understanding of ways in which maternal employment makes a difference in parent-child relationships, and of which relationships are important for child's academic development, will allow us to evaluate how needs of families are changing. Parent involvement in a child's education known to make a difference in child's achievement (Epstein, 1991; Fehrmann, Keith, & Reimers, 1987; Lareau, 1989; Muller, 1993a; Stevenson & Baker, 1987). Yet results of those studies suggest that there are many different ways for to be involved with their child. And may become involved differently depending on resources available to them (Baker & Stevenson, 1986; Lareau, 1989; Muller, 1993a). Lareau and Muller each suggested that not all forms of parent involvement have same consequences for child. Moreover, children of different ages may need different kinds of involvement from parents. As students get older, a style of managing school career increasingly important. As Baker and Stevenson (1986) stated, parents must...help [their child] move skillfully through [school] organization (p. 157). This may mean reaching out to school or developing strategies from home. To study parent involvement in education to identify one aspect of process by which family background makes a difference in a child's academic success. Coleman (1988) suggested that family background is analytically separable into at least three different components: financial capital, human capital, and social (p. S109). Financial capital may be measured by family income or wealth, human capital best measured by level of parents' education, and social capital has to do with relations among actors, in this case among and children. …

BackgroundAlthough long maternal working hours are reported to have a negative effect on children’s dietary habits, few studies have investigated this issue in Japan. Healthy dietary habits in childhood are important because they may reduce the risk of future disease. Here, we examined the relationship between maternal employment status and children’s dietary intake in 1693 pairs of Japanese primary school 5th and 6th graders and their mothers.MethodsThe survey was conducted using two questionnaires, a brief-type self-administered diet history questionnaire and a lifestyle questionnaire. The analysis also considered mothers’ and children’s nutrition knowledge, attitudes toward diet, and some aspects of family environment.ResultsLonger maternal working hours were associated with children’s higher intake of white rice (g/1000kcal) (β 11.4, 95%CI [1.0, 21.9]; working ≥8h vs. not working), lower intake of confectioneries (g/1000kcal) (β −4.0 [−7.6, −0.4]), and higher body mass index (BMI) (kg/m2) (β 0.62 [0.2, 1.0]). Although maternal employment status was not significantly associated with lower intake of healthy food (e.g., vegetables) or higher intake of unhealthy food (e.g., sweetened beverages) in the children, in contrast with previous studies, it may have affected children’s energy intake through their higher intake of white rice. Further, children’s nutrition knowledge and attitudes toward diet, mothers’ food intake, and some family environment factors were significantly associated with intakes of vegetables and sweetened beverages in the children.ConclusionsLonger maternal working hours were significantly associated with higher intake of white rice and lower intake of confectioneries, as well as higher BMI among children. Even when a mother works, however, it may be possible to improve her child’s dietary intake by other means such as nutrition education for children or enhancement of food environment.

Background: Formula feeding in infants aged 0-6 months may increase the risk of morbidity and mortality. Formula feeding in Indonesia continues to increase from 15% in 2003 to 79.8% in 2013. To the best of the authors’ knowledge no studies have been done that analyzed the effects of constructs in Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) on formula feeding practice. This study aimed to analyze the factors influencing formula feeding practice among lactating mothers for their infants aged 0-6 months, using TPB constructs.
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\nSubjects and Method: This study was an analytic observational with cross-sectional approach. It was carried out in Sukoharjo District, Central Java, from April to May 2017. A sample of 150 lactating mothers were selected for this study by cluster random sampling. The exogenous variables were the role of health workers, the role of mass media, subjective norm, and maternal education. The endogenous variables were attitudes toward formula feeding, perceived behavioral control, intention, family income, maternal employment status, and formula feeding practice. The data were collected by a set of questionnaire and analyzed by path analysis.
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\nResults: Infant formula feeding was directly affected by maternal intention (b=1.96; 95% CI =0.59 to 3.34; p=0.005), perceived behavior control (b=2.24; 95% CI =0.79 to 3.68; p=0.002), family income (b=1.99; 95% CI =0.39 to 3.59; p=0.014), and maternal employment status (b=-2.01; 95% CI =-3.82 to -0.21; p=0.029). Mother's intention was influenced by her attitude (b=1.85; 95% CI=0.58 to 3.12; p=0.004), subjective norm (b=2.98; 95% CI =-0.07 to 6.04; p=0.056), perceived behavior control (b=1.53; 95% CI =0.44 to 2.62; p=0.006), and mass media (b=2.01; 95% CI =0.35 to 3.68; p=0.018). Maternal employment status was influenced by maternal education (b=2.68; 95% CI =1.81 to 3.55; p<0.001). Family income was affected by maternal employment status (b=2.10; 95% CI =1.24 to 2.97; p<0.001). Maternal attitude was influenced by the role of health personnel (b=2.73; 95% CI =0.68 to 4.78; p=0.009). Likewise, maternal perceived behavior control was influenced by the role of health personnel (b=1.03; 95% CI =0.22 to 1.84; p=0.013).
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\nConclusion: Infant formula feeding is directly affected by maternal intention, perceived behavior control, family income, and maternal employment status. Infant formula feeding is indirectly affected by attitude, subjective norm, and the role of health personnel.

Possible links between maternal beliefs about children's sex-typed behavior and familial characteristics, mothers' interactions with their young children, and children's cognitive functioning were explored. One hundred and thirty-two mothers and their two-year-olds were seen; familial social class, birth order, and child gender were selection-criterion variables. Sex-typed beliefs were assessed by asking mothers to rate a number of qualities and interests as to whether or not each was more likely to occur in or be characteristic of boys or of girls, or was equally likely to be characteristic of boys and girls. Mothers rated qualities for two different age periods—toddlerhood and middle childhood. Mothers and toddlers were observed in a free play setting for 20 min. Responsivity and type of behavior emitted were assessed. The Bayley Scale of Infant Intelligence was given at 24 months. The findings were as follows: First, gender and social class were related to maternal beliefs about sex-typed characteristics. Second, maternal sex-typed beliefs were negatively related to active toy play and distal interaction, with this relationship significant for daughters but not sons. Third, daughters of low sex-typed mothers were more responsive and more likely to seek comfort than daughters of high sex-typed mothers. Fourth, daughters of mothers who had strong sex-typed beliefs had lower IQ scores at 24 months than did daughters of mothers with beliefs less strong; this relationship was not found for sons. Research on cross-sex behavior and enhanced cognitive functioning was reviewed as it relates to these findings.

Our major reflection on these data must be that what we know about the effects of the paid employment of mothers does not warrant the simplistic assumption that family life, and the well-being of children, are thereby endangered. The nature of the summary conclusions that follow demonstrates how little we do know with assurance. As indicated earlier, however, the weight of the prevailing myth requires that we proclaim what is known; the finding of "no effect" is important information. Patients who consult their physicians for assistance in making a decision about a change in maternal employment status, need first of all to be reminded that the entire issue is fogged by deep-seated beliefs and prejudices that are not easily understood or even expressed. Our views on spouse relations and parent-child relations are strongly determined by our own early experiences and by the pervasive societal myth. To the extent that families can plan felicitous changes in the course of their lives together, an earnest effort to untangle myth, prejudice, and belief must be made on all sides. This effort can, however, be aided by an understanding of whatever objective information can be marshalled from an examination of the research literature. The physician's responsibility, as always, is to convey all of the relevant data, privately acknowledging his or her personal position without allowing it to color the presentation of the data. The decision, in the long run, must be made by those who will live with the consequences. To guide them, we might offer from this review the following conclusions: 1. Re working conditions: a. The mother is likely to feel comfortable and enhanced by her employment situation if the job is consonant with her skill and training, if she is rewarded (by recognition and promotion) for accomplishment, and if pay is competitive with other paid jobs. b. If these conditions are not met, her valuation of herself may be diminished in the employment situation, and her family relations altered accordingly. (The situation is thus analogous to that of the father.) c. If she must work for pay, but would rather not (or vice versa, if she wishes to be employed but is not), her position in family relations is likely to be stressed. 2. Re family function: a. The opinion of other important persons in the mother's life (including especially her husband but also her relatives and friends) about the value of her employment will strongly influence her satisfaction with employment. b. Maternal employment per se has little demonstrated long-term effect on family dynamics; if a change in ideology about the family (e.g., from traditional toward egalitarian) is brought about in conjunction with or as a consequence of maternal employment, family relations may be altered accordingly. c. There are many options for the accomplishment of domestic chores; the family's choice will be affected by ideology, financial means, and the availability of resources in the community. It is unrealistic to expect that there will be no change in the performance of domestic responsibilities when the mother enters paid employment. d. Major changes in family life, such as the gain or loss of employment by either parent, may bring about some change in all family relations; the period of adjustment, which is usually experienced as somewhat stressful, is of limited duration. The ultimate effect on the family cannot be reliably assessed during this adjustment period. 3. Re the children: a. Satisfactory child-care arrangements are essential, expensive, and may be difficult to find at this time. It is impossible to generalize about "ideal" child care (with or without a full-time homemaker-mother) since needs vary by family and by age and personality of the child. A variety of options exists. b. For the child, a major component of the changes associated with change in parental employment status may be new circumstances in caretaking. New circumstances may be temporarily stressful, and should therefore be avoided, if possible, at points of rapid and saltatory development, e.g., when attachments are forming (in third quarter of the first year), when symbolic use of language is almost but not quite attained (at about the second birthday), and at any point when the child's adjustment capacity is under stress. c. Children are likely to be positively affected by maternal employment, and attendant changes in family function, if the mother finds satisfaction in work outside the home and if she is supported by family members. d. The children of employed mothers are likely to attain a nonstereotyped view of the nature and value of male and female abilities. e. Other specific direct effects of maternal employment on children have not been demonstrated. It is probable that intervening variables (such as child-rearing style) are critical, and that maternal employment per se should not be expected to have single and uniform effects on the lives of children. Finally, it is impressive that a number of studies report that the families of nonemployed mothers (husbands, children, and the mothers themselves) are strongly opposed to maternal employment, principally on the grounds that the family may be harmed.208, 260, 279, 280 When mothers are successfully and enthusiastically employed, however, the changes reported by their families, if any, tend to be in a positive direction. The myth dies hard.

Background: Obesity is one of the main causes of premature death in adulthood. The prevalence of teenage obesity in Indonesia has been increasing from 1.4% in 2007 to 7.3%. It is hypothesized that the risk of obesity is influenced by lifestyle and socio-economic status. This study aimed to determine the effect of maternal job status, ethnicity, and food intake, on the risk of obesity in teenagers. 
\nSubjects and Method: This was an analytical observational using case-control design. This study was conducted in Surakarta, in September – November 2016. A total of 120 teenagers were selected for the study, consisting of 41 obese teenagers aged 16-18 years old and 79 normal weight teenagers, using fixed disease sampling. The dependent variable was obesity. The independent variables were maternal employment status, ethnicity, carbohydrate intake, fat intake, and energy intake. The data were collected using a set of questionnaires. Food intake was measured by 24 hour food recall. The data were analyzed using path analysis model.
\nResults: Energy intake had positive, significant, and direct effect on the risk of teenage obesity (b= 6.75; 95%CI= 4.36 to 9.14; p<0.001). Working mother indirectly had positive and significant effect on teenage obesity, via fat intake (b=0.77; 95% CI= 0.03 to 1.52; p=0.040). Fat intake indirectly had positive and significant effect on teenage obesity, via energy intake (b=4.16; 95%CI=1.95 to 6.38; p=0.001). Likewise, carbohydrate intake had positive and significant effect on teenage obesity, via energy intake(b=3.31; 95% CI=1.73 to 4.88; p=0.001). Ethnicity (Chinese versus Javanese) did not have significant effect on teenage obesity (b=-1.14; 95% CI =-3.56 to 1.28; p= 0.355).
\nConclusion: Energy intake has direct effect on the risk of teenage obesity. Fat intake, carbohydrate intake, and maternal employment status, have indirect effect on the risk of teenage obesity.

Do maternal socioeconomic status influence child overweight?

Nutrition is the science that studies the link between food and health, and is mainly focused on the role of nutrients in human growth, development, and maintenance. Healthy nutrition involves maintaining a nutritional condition that enables individuals to grow and maintain excellent health. The school age, which ranges from 6 to 12 years old, is a crucial period for physical growth and intellectual development in children. The socioeconomic status of families, social well-being, and health care system proficiency of communities, as well as the environmental impact, are important factors that affect child health. Viewing malnutrition as an issue in human ecology provides a range of approaches for prevention. The objective of this study was to evaluate the nutritional status of school-age children whose mothers were employed or unemployed and attending selected schools in Nepalgunj, Banke. A descriptive comparative research design was employed for the study, and stratified random sampling was used to select 120 students from Nepalgunj, Banke. Data were collected using a self-developed structured questionnaire. The study results showed that children with underweight (51.6%) were more prevalent among employed mothers' children than unemployed mothers' children (20%). However, children with normal weight (43.3%) were more prevalent among children of unemployed mothers than employed mothers (25%). An association was found between school type and maternal employment status with children's body mass index (BMI), and the P-values were <0.001 and <0.02, respectively. The nutritional status of children is a crucial factor for their growth and development. This study indicated that underweight was more prevalent among children of employed mothers, and children of unemployed mothers had a normal weight. Maternal employment status and school types, such as public and private schools, were associated with children's BMI. These factors should be considered while designing interventions to enhance children's nutritional status.

ObjectivesThis study aimed to determine the relationship between stunting in children 6 to 36 months old and maternal employment status in Peru.MethodsA secondary data analysis was conducted using information from the Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) in Peru. We used a representative sample of 4637 mother-child binomials to determine the association between stunting in children 6 to 36 months of age and the employment status of their mothers.ResultsThe prevalence of stunting among children was 15.9% (95% CI: 13.9–16.7). The prevalence of working mothers was 63.7%. No association was found between maternal employment status and the presence of stunting in children [prevalence ratio (PR) = 1.04; 95% confidence interval (95% CI): 0.9 to 1.2; p = 0.627). However, on multivariate analysis we found that the prevalence of stunting was significantly higher among children of mothers performing unpaid work (12.4%) (PR = 1.38; 95% CI: 1.2–1.6; p < 0.001) compared with those of paid working mothers.ConclusionNo significant association was found between maternal employment status and the presence of stunting in children 6 to 36 months of age. However, children of mothers doing unpaid work are at higher risk of stunting. These findings support the implementation of educational programs and labour policies to reduce the prevalence of stunting among children.

Background: Data from Population Inter-Census Survey (Survei Penduduk Antar Sensus, SUPAS) 2015 showed that maternal mortality ratio was 305 per 100,000 live-births in Indonesia. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) set 70 per 100,000 live-births as the target for maternal mortality ratio to be achived by 2030. This study aimed to analyze the determinants of maternal mortality in Bondowoso district, East Java. Subjects and Method: This was an analytic observational study with cross-sectional design. This study was carried out at 17 Community Health Centers, in Bondowoso, East Java from February to March 2017. A sample of 117 study subjects, consisting of 39 cases of maternal death and 78 control, was selected for this study by fixed disease sampling. The dependent variable was incidence of maternal death. The independent variables were maternal education, maternal employment status, antenatal care visit, complication, late model, and other pregnancy risk factors. The data were collected from the obstetric and medical record, as well as a set of questionnaire. The data were analyzed by path analysis Results: Determinants of maternal death included late decision making (b=2.37; 95% CI=0.81 to 3 . 9 3; p=0.00 3 ), late transfer to the hospital (b= 2.35 ; 95% CI =- 0 . 21 to 4.91 ; to p=0.0 72 ), late handling at the hospital (b= 2.36 ; 95% CI=- 0 .1 9 to 4.91 ; p=0.0 69 ) , and complication (b= 2.5 ; 95% CI= 1.41 to 3.62 ; p <0.001 ). Complication was determined by completeness of antenatal visits (b= - 1. 01 ; 95% CI= -1.94 to -0.09 ; p=0. 032 ) , and existence of pregnancy risk factor (b=1. 90 ; 95% CI= 1.01 to 2. 78 ; p= < 0.001) . Pregnancy risk factors was determined by completeness of antenatal visit (b= -1.09 ; 95% CI = -1.99 to -0.19 ; p=0.0 18 ) , maternal education (b= -0.47 ; 95% CI= -0.85 to -0.07 ; p=0.0 20 ) , and maternal employment status (b= 0.14 ; 95% CI= -0.17 to 0.45 ; p=0. 369 ) . Antenatal visit was determined by maternal education (b= 0.54 ; 95% CI=0. 098 to 0.99 ; p=0.0 17 ) and maternal employment status (b= 0.08 ; 95% CI= -0.29 to 0.45 ; p=0. 683 ) . Conclusion: The direct determinants of maternal death include late decision making , late transfer to the hospital , late handling at the hospital, and complication. The indirect determinants of maternal death include completeness of antenatal visits, existence of pregnancy risk factor, maternal education, and maternal employment status. Keywords: determinant, delay , complication, antenatal care, maternal death Correspondence: Ratna Diana Fransiska. Masters Program in Public Health, Sebelas Maret University. Email: ratnadiana00@gmail.com. Mobile: 085778822668 Journal of Maternal and Child Health (2017), 2(1): 76-88 https://doi.org/10.26911/thejmch.2017.02.01.08

Department of Health Services, Policy and Practice, Alpert Medical School, Brown University, Providence, RI Supported in part by a grant from the National Institute Aging [P0-1 AG 27296]. The author declares no conflicts of interest. Reprints: Vincent Mor, PhD, Florence Pirce Grant Professor of Community Health, Department of Health Services, Policy and Practice, Alpert Medical School, Brown University, Providence, RI. E-mail: [email protected]