Morphosyntactic doubling in language mixing : some puzzles and challenges

This article is a research result which aims to evaluate the emergence of German-Indonesian mixed languages in terms of the types of mixed languages that appear in lectures. It is possible for the emergence of a mixed German-Indonesian language, in the lectures at German Literature Department because Indonesian and German are used as the language of instruction in lectures. This research is using qualitative methods. Content analysis is used by researchers to deepen the analysis process. The research was carried out by conducting observations in online classes or webinars to find out the forms of mixed language that emerged. This research was done on students and lecturers in the 2019 and 2020 classes and in several seminars held with a total of 136 students and 7 lecturers. From the research data, it can be concluded that the German-Indonesian mixed language appears

This chapter situates the study of race, language, and mixedness within imperial histories through which notions of racial and linguistic hybridity were and continue to be developed. It argues that questions of “mixed race” and “mixed language” are less about mixing races and languages and more about how evaluations of who and what is regarded as mixed are authorized in the ongoing reproduction of colonial hierarchies. After reviewing past research on mixed race and language, the chapter theoretically situates the concepts of race, language, and hybridity within a framework of coloniality that considers colonial, scientific, and liberal discourses surrounding imperial conquest. The chapter introduces four paradigms of mixedness that have been produced through this history: immiscibility, absorption, blend, and end. The chapter concludes with a case study to illustrate how notions of racial and linguistic hybridity frame a contemporary elite figure in the Philippines.

A typology is developed that systematizes the various linguistic phenomena in Ukraine that are commonly referred to as surzhyk—a Ukrainian term meaning `impure, mixed language'. The term surzhyk has become frequently used in public discourse and the media since Ukrainian was elevated to the status of official state language and Ukraine declared its independence. A heightened purist ideology has led to broad use of the term, which tends to have pejorative connotations. The typology is based on the historical, social, and ideological factors that have shaped language use. Five major categories of surzhyk are defined: (1) urbanized peasant surzhyk, (2) village dialect-surzhyk, (3) Sovietized-Ukrainian surzhyk, (4) urban bilinguals' surzhyk, and (5) post-independence surzhyk. These five prototypes are further characterized according to the typology of bilingualism proposed by Auer (1999), by considering the degree of pragmatic salience and the grammaticalization of language alternation. This case study presents a paradigm for the analysis of mixed languages.

Language mixing in people with aphasia: A cross-linguistic analysis using the 4M model.

Couched within the overarching framework of translanguaging, this paper attempts to show the real-life language practices of social actors away from the dominant narratives of translanguaging in bilingual education. Predicated on the mixing and mobility of languages across time and space, the paper uses casual conversations from two multilingual spaces, a university campus, and a marketplace. Firstly, the paper shows the mixing of the English language and Bemba, a widely spoken indigenous language in Zambia while arguing that the Bemba-English translanguaged discourses provide evidence for the mobility and the disembodiment of language and locality. Secondly, the paper argues that the spread and circulation of Bemba in multiple localities should be seen as the mobility of bits and pieces -and/or resources akin to urbanity and hybridity. The paper concludes by bringing into the spotlight the dynamics of the Bemba-English translanguaged discourses in which morphemes as semiotic resources create new lexical items which destabilize expected linguistic norms and boundaries.

Israbic is a language variety that is spoken by a majority of the Druze community in Israel and is characterised by a mixture of Israeli Hebrew and Palestinian Arabic. Longitudinal data of Palestinian Arabic/Israeli Hebrew code-switching from the Israeli Druze community collected in 2000, 2017 and 2018 indicate that Israbic went through a gradual process of language mixing. The process started with code-switching, was followed by a composite matrix language formation and ultimately resulted in a mixed language. Some linguists (see Backus, 2003; Bakker, 2003) claim that mixed languages cannot arise out of code-switching. Conversely, others (see Auer, 1999; Myers-Scotton, 2003) have proposed theoretical models to mixed languages as outcomes of code-switching, and some (see McConvell, 2008; McConvel and Meakins, 2005; Meakins, 2012; O’Shannessy, 2012) have provided empirical evidence under which mixed languages arise out of code-switching. This research sought to gather further empirical evidence showing that Israbic is another mixed language that arose out of code-switching. This study also wished to emphasise the uniqueness of Israbic, which is a mixture of closely related languages. Such mixtures are scarce in the literature (Auer, 2014). An examination of Israbic in relation to Auer’s and Myers-Scotton’s models and general definitions in the literature and comparisons of Israbic with other widely accepted mixed languages reveals that Israbic is an excellent example of a mixed language. However, such models and definitions are based on existing languages that have been subject to discussion in the literature. Of these languages, the majority arose from contact between languages from different language families, whereas this study is concerned with investigating a mixed language from the same language family. Thus, this raises the question as to whether such concepts have the same validity for closely related languages.

This paper discusses the origins of linguistic elements in three Northern Songhay languages of Niger and Mali: Tadaksahak, Tagdal and Tasawaq. Northern Songhay languages combine elements from Berber languages, principally Tuareg forms, and from Songhay; the latter provides inflectional morphology and much of the basic vocabulary, while the former is the source of most of the rest of the vocabulary, especially less basic elements. Subsets of features of Northern Songhay languages are compared with those of several stable mixed languages and mixed-lexicon creoles, and in accounting for the origin of these languages the kind of language mixing found in Northern Songhay languages is compared with that found in the (Algonquian) Montagnais dialect of Betsiamites, Quebec. The study shows that Tagdal and the other Northern Songhay languages could be construed as mixed languages, although the proportion of Berber and Songhay elements varieties somewhat between these languages, and also indicates that the definition of ‘mixed language’ is labile because different mixed languages combine their components in different ways, so that different kinds of mixed languages need to be recognized. NS languages seem to belong to the category of Core-Periphery languages with respect to the origins of more versus less basic morphemes.

Aims and objectives: What exactly happens to a mixed language’s system in a multilingual contact setting? This study aims to investigate the interactions between speakers’ exposure to, frequency of, and proficiency in four languages (English, Tagalog, Hokkien, and Mandarin) and their influences on the why-fronting only wh-question system of Lánnang-uè, a mixed language used by the metropolitan Manila Lannangs. It also aims to test the validity of the assertion that symbiotic mixed languages are more likely to be in flux. Methodology: The Lánnang-uè speakers participated in production and acceptability experiments. Data analysis: Likelihood to front (production) and responses to a 7-point Likert-type scale (acceptability) were the dependent variables for several Bayesian linear mixed-effects models with age, frequency of language use, and language proficiency as primary fixed effects, sociolinguistic factors (e.g., attitudes, identity) as covariates, and participant (and when appropriate, item) as a random effect. Findings: Both production and acceptability results showed that the effects of contact are numerous and far from homogeneous. They vary depending on the source language, wh-phrase type, and degree of consciousness. They corroborate the widely held belief that mixed languages are less stable in symbiotic contexts. However, this paper goes an extra step to show that this “instability” or variability is not always a consequence of contact-induced transfer. It demonstrates that when the source languages influence the stability or development of the mixed language, the effects can be diverse, encompassing aspects such as identity processes, language attitudes, structural transfer, and/or other sociolinguistic innovations. Originality: This article is one of the first studies to examine the effects of contact between multiple languages on a mixed language variable using both production and acceptability experimental data in a five-language context. It is one of the very few variationist works in the Philippines that considers the effects of multilingualism on variation and change.

Introduction One of the more important questions in the study of bilingualism is: to what extent are the bilinguals' two languages functionally independent and to what extent do they constitute a single functional system? Evidence of interaction between systems, namely from language mixing or code mixing, provides an important source of data on bilingual language processing. While such data can come from normal bilinguals as well as bilingual aphasics, language mixing in bilingual aphasia is presumed to offer a direct window on the mechanism of interaction between language systems and is therefore more valuable in modeling the neurolinguistic organization of two language systems with respect to one another. In this chapter I will outline a neurolinguistic model of language processing in the bilingual and then propose to account for language mixing in terms of the framework of this model. According to this framework, both languages are activated when a bilingual prepares to speak and the two language systems interact via links between corresponding stages along a processing continuum. The different manifestations of language mixing reflect the interaction of language systems at different levels of language processing. I will begin by reviewing the examples of language mixing in aphasia that have been reported in the literature. I will then discuss the relationship between language mixing in aphasia and language mixing in normals. In the final part of the chapter I will outline the model and show how various forms of language mixing may arise in terms of this model.

This chapter examines language mixing in two text-based asynchronous modes – internet forums and text messages. While the latter is limited in space, thereby encouraging the use of stylistic short forms, the former presents the participant with unlimited space for expression. This major difference affects the extent to which language mixing is practiced in the two forms of communication. Language mixing in text messages is constrained mainly by cultural factors - greetings and prayers form the bulk of indigenous language expressions embedded in English, the matrix language. Language play is another factor that motivates people to mix languages in text messages. In internet forums, language mixing manifests as a result of the apparent mutual linguistic influence that English and the Nigerian languages have on each other. Conscious and deliberate language mixing reflects most prominently the need by participants for identity construction in their discourse. Features of Nigerianisms coupled with language mixing gives the communication in both SMS and internet forum the distinct Nigerian flavor.

Reduplication is not a major word formation process in Kallawaya, a mixed and secret language of Bolivia. Most reduplicative constructions resemble compounding in that two (nominal) stems are linked. However, Kallawaya also has a number of (in the Andean sphere) less common formal and functional reduplication features, such as e.g. ‘phrasal reduplication’ and the expression of associative qualities. In the present paper, I will describe full and partial reduplication in Kallawaya, arguing that the latter is possibly grammaticalized. Further, I will also discuss iconic and less iconic functions of reduplication in Kallawaya. Keywords: mixed language; secret language; reduplication; associative qualities; semantic lexicalizations

Sentiment analysis has emerged as one of the prominent research branches because of its endless usages and applications. Monitoring social media, forums, blogs and other online resources for customer reviews, product competition and survey responses to understand customer insight is of significant importance in business analytics. With the proliferation of informal user generated data online, the use of mixed language has become a common phenomenon. Mixed language arises through the use of linguistic code switching (LCS) or the practice of using more than one language in a single sentence. Such mixed language has rarely been a subject of sentiment analysis before. The lack of a clear grammatical structure renders the previous approaches to sentiment analysis ineffective for such text. In this paper, we propose a strategy to determine the sentiment of sentences written in a mixed language comprising of Hindi and English lexicons. Our technique can be used to analyze the sentiment of data belonging to any one of the source languages as well as the mixed language data. Grammatical transitions which are very common in mixed language have been taken into account during the sentiment analysis. We demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed approach via case studies on social media data sets.

Many languages have been described as mixed languages, which together with pidgins and creoles can be classified as younger languages, because they have developed from preexisting languages. Several kinds of mixed languages are distinguished here on predominantly sociolinguistic (rather than on purely structural) grounds, and features are compared across mixed languages. Some of these languages are used as the major language of their respective speech communities, whereas other languages are used for specific purposes within a speech community, which othewrwise employs non-mixed languages. It is shown that although many mixed languages show a wide range of social or structural similarities, there is no single template which can be employed to describe all stable mixed languages.

Code switching typology completed in 1998 and partially revisited in 2013 (Auer 1998; 2013) is discussed and applied in the analysis of Russian speakers living in Finland and of Nganasan speakers living on the Taimyr Peninsula, Russian Federation. According to the code-switching typology, there are broadly seen three stages of codeswitching: code switching proper (I), code mixing (II) and mixed language (III). They form a one-directional continuum in language-contact situations, so that the direction from the first stage towards the third one cannot be reversed and, on the other hand, there is no clear boundary between the two consecutive stages. Both Finno-Russians and Nganasans use the other language in the interaction. Finno-Russians use Finnish in their Russian speech and Nganasans use Russian in their Nganasan-language interaction. All in all, language alternation of both groups varies between code-switching and code-mixing. Short and phono-morphologically integrated passages in the other language usually do not include interaction or narrative relevant meaning. Code-switched excerpts meaningful from the narrative or interaction viewpoint are longer and form the other-language islands. The status of the languages in society and the interaction type construct, respectively, macro- and micro-frameworks for language choice and the possibility of language alternation.

This chapter provides some background on the history of Michif, the language spoken by at least a few hundred Métis people. The Métis were originally located in the Red River Valley, and are today mostly located in Manitoba and Saskatchewan, Canada. As Michif is usually characterized as a ‘mixed language’, arising from contact of Plains Cree and French, this chapter discusses ‘contact languages’ more generally, including creoles, pidgins, and mixed languages, as well as the claim that Michif is a ‘mixed language’ itself. This chapter also provides background on the elements within the Michif Determiner Phrase (DP), such as the origin of certain syntactic categories, and presents the basic facts that are investigated in more detail in the rest of the book. Other facts relevant to the issues discussed in the book are also briefly discussed.