Monopsony and Mixed Martial Arts: An Antitrust Analysis

Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) is a full-contact combat sport that has been labeled the “fastest growing sport in the world.” MMA consists of hand-to-hand combat between two fighters trained in various forms of martial arts. Typical MMA bouts consist of punches, kicks, elbow and knee strikes, joint manipulation, and strangulation techniques. MMA bouts end in a submission (a “tap out”), knockout, or by a judge's decision. MMA is well known for its violence and brutal nature, with many fighters suffering lacerations, concussions, and broken or manipulated joints and bones. The Ultimate Fighting Championship, the largest MMA promotion company, has become immensely popular, landing itself on the FOX network and increasing its viewership by the millions. Many viewers include children who now practice and compete in MMA. The problem, however, is that there are no laws or rules that govern or regulate underage MMA competitions. This has led to unregulated MMA competitions featuring children fighters, which poses a serious health risk to the children. A longstanding debate exists whether children should participate in MMA fights or whether MMA should be banned entirely. This Note balances the competing views and rejects the proposal for banning MMA and instead calls for the regulation of children MMA competitions. This Note will offer three proposals in which regulating children's MMA can be accomplished. Keypoints for the Family Court Community Addresses an ongoing and unaddressed problem of underage children competing in mixed martial arts (MMA) Educates the reader as to what is MMA, giving a brief background and information as to this sport which has exploded in popularity over recent years With the inconsistent regulation of MMA in this country, this is a problem that will worsen without giving it the necessary attention Helps to dilute the misconceptions and misunderstanding of MMA as a whole Addreses the health concerns and risks to underage children participating in MMA Discusses and suggests several alternatives to help resolve this issue

Cage-Fighting, also known as Mixed Martial Arts (MMA), is a combat sport that allows participants to grapple, punch, kick, elbow and knee—a combination of elements from many martial arts. While it is debatable whether adults ought to be free to engage in risky sports such as MMA, the question of whether children ought to partake in MMA is even more fraught. This is for two reasons. Firstly, MMA is riskier for children than adults due to their very vulnerable brains and undeveloped and fragile skeletal structure. Secondly, as most children will not have the capacity to consent to engaging in MMA, the decision falls to the parents or guardians. Hence, there is a tension between the parental right to make decisions on behalf of a child and the right of the child to be protected from harm. This paper begins by assessing the empirical evidence concerning the harms and benefits of kid’s MMA, and note the potential for the evidence to be value-laden. We assess the risk associated with kid’s MMA using a rubric that considers both the likelihood and severity of harm. Despite the lack of conclusive empirical evidence, we consider the harm associated with kid’s MMA to be substantial. The paper then outlines the tension between parental autonomy and a child’s right to be protected from harm. After considering the frameworks of best interests, the zone of parental discretion and a child’s right to an open future, we conclude that parents should be able to allow their children to participate in MMA—that kid’s MMA should not be banned.

This chapter discusses the nature and character of mixed martial arts (MMA), and its relation to other categories of martial activities. We begin with the conclusions of our earlier paper on martial categories, by introducing five different basic categories of martial activities that are identified according to their differing structural purposes, namely close combat, warrior arts, martial arts, martial paths, and martial sports. After some discussion of the nature and point of categorization, we discuss the relation of MMA to the three most relevant categories – martial arts, combat sports, and close combat. MMA is sometimes 'hyped' as if it were a kind of close combat, but it clearly is not, since MMA has more rules, is less deadly, and is more 'safetified'. Neither is MMA a martial art, since martial arts emphasize not only the learning of more or less safetified martial techniques, but also the cultivation of self and moral virtues, which MMA does not. In asking the question answered in our title, we conclude that MMA is neither a kind of close combat nor a martial art, but a martial sport – specifically, a member of the subset: combat sports.

Mixed martial arts (MMA) is a popular combat sport including wrestling, boxing, and martial arts, which involves danger and violence. It is reported to have one of the greatest injury rates among different sports, limits participation, and often consists of considerable medical costs. The available literature on MMA injuries is sparse and requires a comprehensive review of injuries in this popular sport. This systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted with the aim of critically evaluating the epidemiological literature on injury patterns, mechanisms, and associated risk factors in mixed martial arts athletes. According to PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) procedures, primary English-language literature investigating MMA injuries was scanned in six databases from the time these databases were established to July 14th, 2025. Reports that provided information on injury rates and attributes were reviewed and analyzed. The PICOS (population, intervention [participation in MMA], comparison [comparison within MMA], outcome [prevalence of specific injuries - concussions, fractures, etc.], and study design) model was used to clarify the research questions. The quality and level of reports were assessed employing the JBI method. Random effects meta-analysis on the prevalence of concussion was done using STATA software. A total of 2520 reports were eligible for inclusion in the current review. Descriptive analysis disclosed that the prevalence of injuries ranged from 0.2 to 92.7 injuries in MMA athletes. MMA athletes suffered more upper limb injuries. Head injuries in 17 out of 55 reports (30.90%), shoulder injuries in 13 out of 55 reports (23.63%), hand injuries in 11 out of 55 reports (20.0%), elbow injuries in 10 out of 55 reports (18.18%), ankle in 10 out of 55 reports (18.18%), knee injuries in eight out of 55 reports (14.54 percent), and facial injuries in six out of 55 reports (10.90 percent) were the most frequent injuries in MMA athletes. Concussions, sprains, fractures, dislocations, tears, contusions, and strains in different body parts were also reported. There is evidence that injury rates are higher among professional MMA fighters. Striking, being struck, grappling, overuse, and takedowns were mechanisms of injuries in MMA athletes. Higher competitive level was a major risk factor for MMA athletes. Moreover, older age, weight, having a previous injury, the number of rounds, and non-submission outcome were associated risk factors. The pooled prevalence of concussion injuries in MMA athletes were 20.68%; 95% CI 17.66, 23.69. The subgroup analysis showed that the polled prevalence of concussion injuries in MMA athletes with age 31-40 years old (20.37%; 95% CI 14.82, 25.91) was higher than in athletes with age 20-30 years old (19.50%; 95% CI 3.72, 35.29). The injury rate in MMA seems to be higher than most, if not all, other popular and common combat sports. MMA fighters, who are older, train at highly competitive levels and are exposed to competitive environments, are at accelerated risk of injury. Further epidemiological research is necessary to advance the accuracy of injury occurrence estimates, identify injury severity, and determine additional risk factors for injury in MMA athletes.

To determine the difference, if any, in the physiological characteristics of mixed martial arts athletes and traditional martial arts athletes. Twelve male participants age 18 to 36 yr volunteered for the study. Group 1 (n = 6) was comprised of professional and amateur mixed martial artists from northern Louisiana. Group 2 (n = 6) was traditional martial artists recruited from a local karate tournament. Each group performed the same tests. Tests included height, weight, body composition (TanitaTM bioelectrical impedance device), flexibility (sit and reach), leg power (vertical jump), muscular endurance (1-minute push-up and 1-minute sit-up), grip strength (20.5 kg plate hold), muscular strength (1 rep max bench press), and o2max. Body composition was the only significant difference (p < 0.05) between the 2 groups. The mixed martial artists were significantly leaner than the traditional martial artists. This was not surprising because class separation for traditional martial artists goes by age rank, while mixed martial arts competition is broken down into weight classes. In order to compete in a lower weight class, mixed martial artists reduce their body mass to make a specific weight class. In doing this, percent body fat is typically reduced. There were 2 major limitations to this study. One was the timing of testing. The traditional martial artists were tested 1-2 hr after competing in a karate tournament, while the mixed martial artists were tested weeks before their next fight. The other limitation was the number of participants. Though only one significant difference was found between the groups, it can be suggested that a high level of physical fitness is essential for performance in mixed martial arts and traditional martial art competitions. Mixed martial artists usually train at high intensities with various forms of interval training to improve their aerobic capacity. This helps condition them for their fights. Although o2max was not found to be significantly different between the 2 groups, there was a trend for the mixed martial artists having higher aerobic capacities. Had there been more participants and lower standard deviations for o2max, this variable may have been significantly different. Future studies should attempt to test the groups during the same time frame, have more participants, measure psychological characteristics, and consider using a DXA scan to measure bone mineral density. Acknowledgments: We would like to thank Dr. David Jordan for letting us use his tournament to recruit participants.

BACKGROUND:

PurposeThis study aims to investigate the complex dynamics of sports sponsorship within the context of mixed martial arts (MMA). Specifically, it explores how audience attitudes toward MMA influence their perceptions of players and sponsors, and subsequently, how these attitudes affect brand perceptions and purchase intentions. Furthermore, this research examines the moderating effect of fans' attitudes toward MMA on the relationship between their attitudes toward sponsors and their purchase intentions. MMA was selected as the focus of this study due to its propensity to evoke more intense emotional responses than other sports, as evidenced by previous research.Design/methodology/approachStudy 1 was conducted to systematically assess the emotional responses elicited by MMA. This preliminary study involved 277 participants. Building on the findings from Study 1, Study 2 employed an online survey to investigate the relationships among various constructs related to MMA. This survey was facilitated through an external portal and included a sample of 459 participants residing in the United States. The constructs measured in this survey were attitudes toward the player (ATP), attitudes toward the sponsor (ATS), perception of brand quality (PBQ), purchase intention (ITP) and attitudes toward mixed martial arts (ATM).FindingsThe study reveals that respondents rated MMA the most negatively among the analyzed sports, with the highest standard deviation, indicating that MMA evokes extreme emotional responses. The findings confirm that attitudes toward the player positively influence attitudes toward the sponsor, aligning with sponsorship-linked marketing theory. Moreover, positive attitudes toward the player were found to enhance perceptions of the sponsor’s brand quality. The research further demonstrated that attitudes toward the sponsor and perceptions of brand quality mediate the relationship between attitudes toward the player and purchase intentions, underscoring the complex nature of consumer decision-making in MMA sponsorship.Originality/valueThis research provides novel insights into the critical role of audience engagement and personal connection with sports in formulating effective sponsorship strategies. It emphasizes the need for marketers to tailor their approaches to align with the sport’s personal significance to the audience, employing narratives that resonate with their identities and values. Enhancing player-sponsor associations through co-branded campaigns and endorsements is essential. Furthermore, consistently maintaining high product quality and fostering emotional connections with the sport are key strategies to drive increased purchase intentions.

We would like to congratulate Dr. Lachlan P. James and colleagues for their work ‘‘Towards a Determination of the Physiological Characteristics Distinguishing Successful Mixed Martial Arts Athletes: A Systematic Review of Combat Sport Literature’’, published recently in Sports Medicine [1]. In recent years, mixed martial arts (MMA) has seen an exponential growth in both the number of practitioners/athletes and the number of sporting events. Thus, to draw a physical and physiological profile of athletes of this modality would be of great help to the organization and prescription of training, as the authors reported and tried to describe through a (much appreciated) systematic review. However, some factors make us question the applicability of the results. In our view, the results of this review provide important information to distinguish between the physiological profiles of athletes of different modalities (boxing, Brazilian jiu-jitsu, judo, karate, kickboxing, Muay Thai and wrestling), but such results cannot be extended to MMA specifically. In Table 1, it can be seen that no article specifically dealing with MMA met the search criteria to be included in the systematic review [1]. This fact is inherent in the low number of studies involving the sport, which are mostly studies describing injuries involving MMA [2–6]. In all, eight articles referred to wrestling, eight referred to judo, four referred to karate, two referred to boxing, and one referred to Brazilian jiu-jitsu; none referring to kickboxing, Muay Thai or MMA were added. This fact is extremely important in interpreting the results because the main modalities of striking (Muay Thai and kickboxing) are not considered in the study, and Brazilian jiu-jitsu, which is a modality of grappling included in the training of almost all MMA athletes, is considered in only one study [1]. Furthermore, the fact that judo and Brazilian jiu-jitsu are played in a kimono uniform (judogi or gi) can greatly influence the physiological responses of the athletes (e.g. isometric endurance strength of the flexor and extensor muscles of the forearm due to grip contests in the course of the match). Indeed, approximately 50 % of judo matches is taken up by the participants battling for grips [7, 8]. Thus, it is plausible that the grappling athletes have high isometric and dynamic endurance strength in the flexor and extensor muscles of the forearm. However, the key factor in our objection to the applicability of the results is due to the fact that the results are from elite athletes engaged in their modalities of origin and not in MMA. There is consensus that the physiological adaptations are specific to the training carried out and this principle must be considered to maximize the performance of sports combat athletes [9, 10]. Training for MMA and MMA competitions reflects the fact that the physiological and metabolic demands of these contests are significantly different, a fact that can change the morphophysiological profile of these athletes over the long-term. In major competitions, the professional MMA match time comprises three to five rounds of 5 min, with 1 min of rest between rounds. This total match time (15–25 min, & Leonardo Vidal Andreato vidal.leo@hotmail.com

Mixed martial arts (MMA) is a combination of multiple combat sports. Acute injuries in MMA are well known and have been broadly described. However, there is little knowledge about degenerative changes in the musculoskeletal system. The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of techniques used in MMA on the occurrence of degenerative changes in the hand and wrist in comparison to classical boxing. 11 MMA fighters and 10 boxers with chronic wrist pain were clinically examined. Age, weight, years of training, number of fights, level of competition and weekly hours of training were recorded. To determine degenerative changes, an MRI of the symptomatic hand was assessed. Years of training, level of competition and number of fights did not show a significant difference between MMA and boxing fighters (p > 0.05), but MMA fighters showed significantly more hours of training per week (p < 0.001). The MMA fighters had more often and more severe degenerative changes of all examined structures (bone, fibrocartilage, ligaments and tendons), with the category "bone" reaching significance (p = 0.002). MMA athletes show significantly greater incidence and degree of degeneration in hand and wrist joints. The exact reasons are still unknown and further research is needed to determine the influence of MMA techniques on the severity of degenerative changes in the hand and wrist.

The research purpose is to evaluate and analyze the possibilities of using sponsorship in mixed martial arts in Russia. Methods and organization of the research. The following methods were used during the research: the analysis of scientific and methodological literature, documentary and Internet sources, study of the organization of promotions and mixed martial arts tournaments. Scientific articles, official documents and Internet sites of Russian and foreign mixed martial arts promotions were analyzed to achieve the goal. The analysis of materials on the possibility of using sponsorship in Russia, which were highlighted during the research, was carried out. Research results. The article presents the results of the research on the specific use of sponsorship in mixed martial arts in Russia and in the world. The sponsorship of promotions, regular tournaments and participating mixed martial arts fighters is described. The interest in mixed martial arts among different audiences is determined. The opportunities for potential sponsors and partners who will want to get their promotion through mixed martial arts are analyzed. Conclusion. According to the results of the research, we have highlighted promising opportunities for additional funding of mixed martial arts through organizing work with sponsors and partners. The data obtained allow experts to form an idea of the available opportunities in mixed martial arts, as a new channel of promotion and communication with the sports audience.

Homelessness is a growing issue in the UK, with those affected facing a range of challenges that exacerbate their marginalisation in society. Addiction, poor mental and physical health, and social isolation are examples of the difficulties they encounter. The need for targeted interventions to positively impact the lives of those experiencing homelessness, or those at risk, is urgent. Sport and exercise offer a promising solution; their effectiveness in empowering marginalised groups and cultivating community is well documented. This research in partnership with Mind Body Connect (MBC), a Sheffield-based charity that empowers marginalised individuals through physical activity, and several homelessness services, explores the use of Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) as an exercise intervention for homeless individuals. MMA, a range of combat sports, has the potential to enhance health and well-being, though its application to homelessness has not been previously documented. The study aimed to 1) implement tailored, sustainable MMA classes, adding them as an activity to MBC’s existing repertoire; 2) measure and explore the impacts of weekly structured MMA classes on the Recovery Capital (RC) of homeless individuals, or those at risk of homelessness, RC best summarised as the resources and capacities that enable growth and human flourishing; 3) develop practical recommendations for future exercise interventions targeting vulnerable adults. The Revised Recovery Capital Model (RRCM) accounts for physicality and allows the potential benefits of exercise on recovery to be articulated. This research marks the second application of the RRCM outside of interventions tackling addiction and the first in the context of homelessness. Eighteen months of MMA classes were made available to service users of local agencies that support homeless individuals. Further funding resulted in MMA classes continuing beyond this period. As of September 2024, MMA classes have been active for 35 months. These sessions took place each Wednesday for one hour and were run by a qualified MMA coach in a fully equipped MMA studio. Classes included striking (Muay Thai), wrestling, and Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu (submission ground fighting). Data was collected over 28 months using an applied ethnographic approach utilising mixed methods. Qualitative data was gathered through observations before, after, and during training sessions and follow-up interviews. The BARC survey was used to objectively measure RC throughout the training window. Twenty participants took part in the study. Thematic analysis revealed decreases in RC before attending MMA classes due to factors such as poverty, violence, trauma, instability, mental health and addiction. However, participants reported improvements in confidence, trust, fitness, body image, social connection, self-efficacy, and mental well-being through their engagement with MMA. Quantitative analysis also showed an increase in RC through MMA training. Combined, results show that MMA training boosted RC, fitness, and transformed participants’ habitus, marking a significant contribution to the field of recovery interventions. This research demonstrates the application of the RRCM to homelessness and offers recommendations for effective exercise recovery interventions. The dynamic nature of the study yielded additional benefits for participants and MBC, including, paid employment and qualifications for participants, and funding for the organisation. MMA classes became a permanent fixture in MBC’s repertoire at the study’s conclusion. Recommendations from the research advocate for increased emphasis on empowering homeless individuals to engage in physical activity. Additionally, it suggests further research and practice in using MMA as a means of supporting and rehabilitating marginalised groups.

BackgroundSimilar to other combat sports, mixed martial arts (MMA) includes divisional weight classes. The purpose of our research was to further investigate the amount of weight professional MMA fighters lost prior to weighing in for competition, their methods used to cut weight, and their sources of advice on how to cut weight.MethodsThis survey was administered to 92 male professional MMA athletes. The survey questions included duration of overall weight loss prior to competition, methods of weight-cutting, and their sources of advice regarding weight cutting.ResultsWhen comparing the number of methods of weight cutting with the source of advice, those who received their advice from social media used slightly more methods of weight cutting (M = 4.86, SD = 1.27) than those who did not (M = 4.02, SD = 1.55); t(90) = − 2.53, p < .05. MMA athletes that used the help of a registered dietitian nutritionist also reported using the least amount of methods for weight-cutting than any other category (M = 3.84, SD = 1.67). Those that used teammates and did not use a registered dietitian nutritionist used slightly more methods (M = 4.46, SD = 1.41) than those who used a registered dietitian nutritionist.ConclusionsThe findings of this study report that professional MMA athletes do undergo rapid weight loss through various methods to make weight for competition. This study adds evidence to the literature that most professional MMA athletes undergo RWL for competition without the guidance of a registered dietitian nutritionist. It is unclear what the effect of using a registered dietitian nutritionist may have on an MMA athletes’ ability to reduce weight in a safe and effective manner. Future research should seek to investigate if employing a registered dietitian nutritionist may lead to a higher rate of success for MMA athletes to make weight, and help reduce adverse risks of RWL.

Mixed martial arts (MMA) is a combat sport underpinned by techniques from other combat disciplines, in addition to strategies unique to the sport itself. These sports can be divided into two distinct categories (grappling or striking) based on differing technical demands. Uniquely, MMA combines both methods of combat and therefore appears to be physiologically complex requiring a spectrum of mechanical and metabolic qualities to drive performance. However, little is known about the physiological characteristics that distinguish higher- from lower-level MMA athletes. Such information provides guidance for training interventions, performance testing and talent identification. Furthermore, while MMA incorporates techniques from both grappling and striking sports, it is unknown precisely how these disciplines differ physiologically. Understanding the relationship between higher-level competitors in grappling and striking combat sports can provide further insight into the development of the optimal performance profile of a higher-level MMA athlete. This article aims to analyse the scientific literature on MMA and the primary combat sports underpinning it to determine the physiological adaptations that distinguish superior competitors, with a view to defining the optimal physiological profile for higher-level MMA performance. Furthermore, this article will explore the differences in these capabilities between grappling- and striking-based combat sports in the context of MMA. A literature search was undertaken via PubMed, Web of Science, SportDiscus and Google Scholar. The following sports were included for systematic review based on their relevance to MMA: mixed martial arts, boxing, Brazilian jiu-jitsu, judo, karate, kickboxing, Muay Thai and wrestling. The inclusion criteria allowed studies that compared athletes of differing competition levels in the same sport using a physiological performance measure. Only male, adult (aged 17-40years), able-bodied competitors were included. The search history spanned from the earliest record until September 2015. Of the eight combat sports searched for, five were represented across 23 studies. Sixteen investigations described maximal strength or neuromuscular power variables, while 19 articles reported anaerobic or aerobic measures. The results indicate that a number of strength, neuromuscular power and anaerobic variables distinguished higher- from lower-level combat sport athletes. However, these differences were less clear when groups were stratified within, rather than between competition grades. Greater aerobic power was generally not present amongst superior combat sport competitors. There appear to be differing physiological profiles between more successful grappling and striking combat sport athletes. This is represented by high-force demands of grappling sports causing an upwards shift of the entire force-velocity relationship driven by an increase in maximal strength. In comparison, smaller increases in maximal force production with more notable enhancements in lighter load, higher velocity actions may better identify superior performance in striking sports. Anaerobic capabilities largely distinguished higher- from lower-level combat sport athletes. In particular, longer-term anaerobic efforts seem to define successful grappling-based athletes, while superior competitors in striking sports tend to show dominance in shorter-term measures when compared with their lower-level counterparts. Given the demand for both forms of combat in MMA, a spectrum of physiological markers may characterize higher-level competitors. Furthermore, the performance profile of successful MMA athletes may differ based on combat sport history or competition strategy.

The purpose of this article is to investigate women’s participation in mixed martial arts in the Nordic countries. The study is based on a qualitative and quantitative methodological approach consisting of individual interviews and focus group interviews with Swedish female mixed martial arts fighters and data from a Norwegian survey of participants in Norwegian mixed martial arts clubs. A total of 12 female fighters were interviewed, while 484 respondents participated in the survey. The results show that women exercising mixed martial arts contain a potential to act as feminist role models through their counter-hegemonic renegotiation of norms and views on femininity and, more specifically, the perception of femininity as something fragile and passive. Despite this progressive potential, the informants unanimously affirm that combat sports in general and in different ways are dominated by males. The data indicates that women still represent a small and marginalised group among mixed martial arts participants in the Nordic countries. Furthermore, women participating in mixed martial arts compete less and are less motivated by performance enhancement (developing as fighters, winning fights/tournaments/titles) compared to the male participants. However, both male and female participants value health and fun as the most important reasons for their participation in mixed martial arts training groups.

Limited research has systematically examined injuries resulting from Brazilian Jiu Jitsu (BJJ), Judo, and mixed martial arts (MMA), especially when compared to more well-known or -established martial arts. These three combative sports differ substantially regarding their rules and techniques. BJJ emphasizes ground positioning and submission, Judo rewards throwing an opponent on their back with submission ending the match, and MMA emphasizes knocking out or forcing the submission of one's opponent. We examined injuries, among people of any age, experienced from participation in BJJ, Judo, and MMA. We analyzed data from the United States (U.S.) Consumer Product Safety Commission National Electronic Injury Surveillance System to create estimates of injuries presenting to U.S. emergency departments (EDs). We compared injury profiles between sports, including estimated numbers of injuries, their site, type, and mechanism. Participation in BJJ, Judo, and MMA resulted in an estimated 39,181 injuries presenting to U.S. EDs from 2008 through 2015. Strains and sprains were the most common diagnoses for BJJ and Judo participants, whereas abrasions/contusions were the most commonly diagnosed MMA injury. Being struck resulted in the majority of injuries for all three sports. The head was the most injured body region for BJJ and MMA, whereas the leg was the most injured body region for Judo. Finally, the majority of BJJ and Judo injuries occurred during noncompetitive grappling, whereas most MMA injuries occurred during competition. Our study adds to the limited literature examining injuries from BJJ, Judo, and MMA using data from a probability sample and is an initial step towards understanding the national burden of injury from participation in these sports. Given the quantity and severity of injuries sustained by participants, additional research is needed to assess the riskiness of participation and the effectiveness of interventions, such as improved personal protective gear and mats, as a means to prevent commonly occurring injuries.