Abstract
The distribution and population dynamics of zooplankton are affected by the interplay between currents, behaviour and selective growth, mortality and reproduction. Here, we present an individual based model for a copepod where life-history and behavioural traits are adapted using a genetic algorithm approach. The objectives were to investigate the importance of spatial and inter-annual variability in biophysical forcing and different predator densities on the adaptation of emergent life history traits in a copepod. The results show that in simulations with adaptation, the populations remained viable (positive population growth) within the study area over 100-year simulation whereas without adaptation populations were unviable. In one dimensional simulations with fixed spatial position there were small differences between replicate simulations. Inter-annual variability in forcing resulted in increased difference in fitness between years. Simulations with spatial-, but without inter-annual variability in forcing produced large differences in the geographic distribution, fitness and life history strategies between replicate simulations. In simulations with both spatial and inter-annual variability the replicates had rather small variability in traits. Increased predator density lead to increased day depth and avoidance of the lit upper waters. The model can be used for a range of different applications such as studying individual and population responses to environmental changes including climate change as well as to yield robust behavioral strategies for use in fully coupled end to end ecosystem models.
Highlights
The distribution and population dynamics of zooplankton are affected by the interplay between currents, behavior, and selective growth, mortality, and reproduction
We developed an individual based model for a copepod based on previous model studies that include growth, mortality, and reproduction as well as adaptive traits for controlling phenology and the interaction with the environment
The entire life cycle of copepods and the main life history features and vertical movement are emergent properties resulting from many generations of evolution using a genetic algorithm (Figure 1)
Summary
The distribution and population dynamics of zooplankton are affected by the interplay between currents, behavior, and selective growth, mortality, and reproduction. Zooplankton can respond to a range of environmental factors including predators, prey, and physical factors such as temperature (Bollens and Frost, 1989; Carlotti et al, 2000; Fiksen, 2000). Predation is generally important in shaping life histories of organisms (Roff, 1992; Stearns, 1992). Organisms inhabiting the sea have the inherent problem of upholding life cycle closure due to the advective and diffusive forces that continuously act to disperse populations (Sinclair, 1988; Eiane et al, 1998). Explicit individual based models can be valuable for investigating the interplay between these productive, selective and dispersive factors on the spatialtemporal dynamics of zooplankton
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