Model-based feedback in digital writing: effects on young EFL learners’ writing processes and text features

This study aims to explore the relationship between music and language learning—both processed in parts of the brain within proximity of each other. It is of value to determine whether it is beneficial to incorporate music when young EFL (English as a foreign language) learners acquire new vocabulary. Utilizing three age-appropriate songs from familiar cartoon movies, the groups of students underwent different music exposures: “chanting,” “singing,” “music video without caption,” and “music video with caption.” The research attempted to determine whether music can help young EFL learners with vocabulary acquisition and if so, which pedagogical practice leads to the optimal gains. Results found in this study proved that the better acquisition of novel vocabulary in EFL learning could be achieved with the help of familiar melodies, with “chanting” and “music video with caption” methods being the most effective and lead to immediate and prolonged learning. Based on the findings, optimal music teaching methods are discussed.

The process of language production among English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners is a multifaceted phenomenon which has engaged EFL researchers and practitioners’ interest for a long time. For many EFL learners, producing language through writing is considered a difficult and challenging task, making it a favoured research area. However, there seems to be a dire need to investigate the way writing is mastered among young EFL learners. The present study attempted to investigate language transfer from L1 to L2 or vice versa among young EFL learners when experiencing paragraph writing for the first time. In addition, the researchers attempted to see whether the preliminary paragraph writing instruction can affect young EFL learners’ paragraph writing. A further goal was to find out whether the type of writing task can influence the paragraph organization among young EFL learners. In order to address these concerns, 34young EFL learners participated in this study. The data were gathered through full-term observation, collecting L1 and L2 writing samples, and conducting written interviews. The results revealed a negative transfer from L1 in rhetoric and paragraph development which was weakened after teaching L2 paragraph structure. It was also uncovered that the type of writing task and its topic affected the paragraph development. The study concludes with a discussion on the findings followed by suggesting some avenues for further research.

Even though previous research have shown that reading improves one’s language proficiency and a lot of research have been done to examine how young learners learn a second or foreign language, our knowledge on their willingness to read second (L2) or English as a foreign language (EFL) materials remain inadequate and limited. The current study aims to explore young EFL learners’ willingness to read English materials and if it can be predicted based on their social-economic background, English language proficiency and gender. Ninety-five young EFL learners from two elementary schools in a monolingual community participated in a reading program called Ace Your English: Read for Life. All participants completed a survey questionnaire on their willingness to read English materials/books before the start of the reading program. The study revealed that young EFL learners’ willingness to read English books/materials is not necessarily influenced by their Social Economic Status (SES). However, linguistic competence and gender are strong predictors of their willingness to read. Based on the findings of this study, almost all young EFL learners are willing to read English books either voluntarily or through persuasion from the teachers or parents.

This case study aimed to find out the implementation of a genre pedagogy under systemic functional linguistics (SFL) framework or under Sydney School to teach the English language to young English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners of English Village of Parit Baru, Kubu Raya, West Kalimantan. Fifty-two young EFL learners were involved in this study. The data collection used two instruments, namely participant observations and documentation. The data analysis reveals that genre pedagogy elements could help the young EFL learners in constructing and communicating their texts independently. Also, the learners’ texts are following the schematic structures and linguistic features of the spoken genres the learners learned. To help the learners to cope with the teaching activities, songs and games activities were used to build their interest in the English language, new vocabulary, and practices to communicate their texts. This means that a genre pedagogy under the SFL framework could be integrated with joyful activities that not only provide guidance but also promote enjoyable learning in building the English language capacities of the young EFL learners in a non-formal educational context.

Vocabulary is the building block of language. However, vocabulary acquisition among young English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners in Indonesia, often exacerbated by the limitations of traditional textbook-based instruction. To overcome these limitations, this research proposed the integration of WordWorld Cartoon, a multimedia educational program, as an innovative vocabulary learning tool. The study aimed to investigate the impact of WordWorld Cartoon on vocabulary acquisition compared to conventional textbook methods among fifth-grade students. Findings revealed a statistically significant difference in vocabulary development between the two groups, with the experimental group demonstrating substantially higher N-Gain scores (0.70) compared to the control group (0.18). This indicates that WordWorld Cartoon significantly enhanced vocabulary acquisition. These results underscore the efficacy of multimedia learning and the potential of engaging cartoons like WordWorld to foster vocabulary growth among young EFL learners. The study carries significant implications for EFL educators, curriculum developers, and policymakers in Indonesia, advocating for the adoption of innovative and engaging multimedia resources to improve vocabulary instruction and overall language learning outcomes. The findings suggest that integrating WordWorld Cartoon into the curriculum can effectively address the vocabulary learning challenges faced by young EFL learners and promote more effective language development.

This article presents Padlet-based e-portfolios as an innovative teaching method specifically designed to enhance the writing learning experience of young English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners. English writing has historically posed significant challenges for young EFL learners, often characterised by a lack of choice and autonomy in traditional paper-based tasks, as well as long waits for feedback from teachers. While e-portfolios have been used with older foreign language (FL) learners, such as secondary school and tertiary students, they have often been fragmented and lacked the cohesion and user-friendliness required to engage young learners effectively. To address these limitations, this article describes the implementation of Padlet-based e-portfolios with 158 EFL primary school students, offering functionalities unattainable with traditional paper-based methods, such as the customisation of e-portfolios, integration of multimodal, and real-time interactive features for both students and teachers. The findings, derived from group interviews, demonstrate that the use of Padlet-based e-portfolios fostered a heightened sense of ownership over their work, enhanced engagement with multimodal text, and more active participation in interactive tasks. To illustrate the usability of this method, the article provides a detailed procedural framework for implementing Padlet-based e-portfolios and qualitative evaluation results, ensuring practicality and demonstrating its potential for wider adaptability in K-12 educational settings. By highlighting the benefits of Padlet-based e-portfolios, this article offers practical and pedagogical implications for educators seeking to enhance the writing learning experience for young EFL learners.

This article presents and discusses a mixed-method study that seeks to establish a set of words in the English language that in-service primary school teachers consider difficult to pronounce by young learners of English whose first language (L1) is Norwegian. In the study, 26 in-service primary school teachers of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) are asked to write a reflective essay with a list of phonetically difficult words (henceforth PDWs) in English that they think are difficult to pronounce by young EFL learners. Additionally, the in-service primary school teachers (further – participants) are requested to reflect and comment on PDWs, and explain the reasons why they think they are phonetically difficult. The participants’ individual lists of PDWs are compiled into a corpus which is processed in the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) in order to calculate the frequency of PDWs. The participants’ comments and reflections are subsequently analysed qualitatively in order to establish the sources of PDWs. The results of the investigation reveal that the corpus of PDWs is comprised of 257 lexical items. The most frequent PDWs are associated with those sounds of the English language that are absent in the young EFL learners’ L1, Norwegian, e.g., /θ/ in birthday, /ð/ in this, /z/ in zoo, etc. Other frequent PDWs are related to English spelling conventions (e.g., fruit), the word-initial position of affricates (e.g., chocolate), and word stress (e.g., window). These findings and their linguo-didactic implications are further discussed in the article.

The literature on foreign language reading instruction has witnessed a significant bulk of research reporting the effectiveness of strategy instruction in improving reading outcomes. However, few studies have investigated the effects of reading strategy instruction on reading affective variables among young English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of teaching second language (L2) reading strategies on young Iranian EFL learners’ reading self-efficacy and reading attitudes. To this end, a sample of 48 Iranian EFL learners, aged 11-13, was recruited through convenience sampling and randomly assigned to an experimental group (N = 25) and a control group (N = 23). Using a quasi-experimental design, the researchers employed an experimental group that received a 12-week reading strategy instruction and a control group that were taught with the regular method without any strategy instruction. The Reading Self-Efficacy Questionnaire (RSEQ) and Reading Attitude Questionnaire (RAQ) were administered to measure the reading self-efficacy and reading attitudes of the participants as pre-test and post-test of the study. The strategy instruction intervention for the present study was based on Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach (CALLA). The findings of the study indicated that the learners in the experimental group significantly outperformed those of the control group in terms of L2 reading self-efficacy. However, it was revealed that there was no significant difference between the reading attitudes of the two groups at the end of the semester. Overall, it may be concluded that EFL practitioners can incorporate teaching of reading strategies into their classrooms in order to help learners to gain both confidence and competence to address reading tasks more effectively.

This paper reports the results of an action research-based study that adapted a mobilesupported cooperative reading system into regular English as a foreign language (EFL) classes at one Taiwanese elementary school. The current study was comprised of two stages: adaptation and evaluation. During the adaptation stage, a mobile-supported cooperative EFL reading (MCER) system—chosen because of a report about its effects on enhancing the development of young EFL learners’ reading abilities (Lan, Sung, & Chang, 2009)—was tailored to be integrated into a regular elementary EFL curriculum based on the suggestions of experienced elementary EFL teachers. During the evaluation stage, an EFL class learned reading via the support given by the MCER system; quantitative and qualitative data were collected and analyzed to evaluate the effects of the adapted reading system on young EFL learners’ reading abilities. The results revealed that the adaptation and use of the MCER system was successful and that it might facilitate the acquisition of reading abilities by young learners if used within EFL classes around the entire school.

The KWL strategy (Know, Want to know, Learned) is a pedagogical approach designed to activate prior knowledge and enhance reading comprehension, particularly effective for young learners of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) aged 7 to 12 years. This strategy supports cognitive and metacognitive development by guiding students to reflect on their existing knowledge, generate questions based on their learning needs, and consolidate newly acquired information. It addresses the linguistic and cognitive challenges young EFL learners face by reducing cognitive load and fostering active engagement with reading materials. The flexibility of KWL allows educators to adapt it using visuals, simplified language, and collaborative activities, making it suitable for diverse multilingual classroom settings. Empirical research demonstrates that KWL improves learners’ retention, organization of ideas, critical thinking, and motivation. Effective teacher facilitation, including explicit modeling and scaffolding, is essential to maximize the strategy’s benefits. Moreover, KWL promotes social interaction and cultural responsiveness, which further supports language acquisition and learner confidence. Overall, the KWL strategy offers a systematic, learner-centered framework that nurtures autonomous and motivated readers, contributing significantly to the development of reading comprehension skills in young EFL learners.

This study investigates the relationship between pausing and revision behaviors, as captured by pause bursts (P-bursts) and revision bursts (R-bursts), and text quality in digital L2 writing contexts among young English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners. The study involved 22 elementary school students aged 10–11 years, with English proficiency levels ranging from A1 to A2 (CEFRL). Participants completed a picture description writing task, and their writing processes were recorded using keystroke logging software. The results revealed that frequent pauses (P-bursts) were negatively correlated with text quality, suggesting cognitive overload or difficulties in language processing. In contrast, revision bursts (R-bursts) exhibited a positive correlation with text quality, indicating that the revision process played a crucial role in refining and improving the written output. Regression analysis further demonstrated that R-bursts significantly predicted text quality, underscoring the importance of revision behavior among young L2 writers. These findings contribute to our understanding of the cognitive processes underlying L2 writing in digital contexts and highlight the central role of revisions in enhancing text quality among young EFL learners. Educational implications emphasize the need for instructional practices that encourage and support the revision process in writing instruction for this population.

This article overviews empirical studies on young English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners’ motivation and task engagement published between 2004 and 2024 to identify trends and gaps in these areas. We analyzed 28 studies conducted in public and private elementary schools in twelve countries, focusing on (1) the theories and frameworks the studies relied on, (2) the research designs used and their focuses, (3) the tasks children engaged with, and (4) the main findings. We followed the seven-stage approach recommended by Chong and Plonsky (2024): (1) defining focus and aim; (2) formulating search strategy; (3) selecting relevant studies; (4) coding studies; (5) checking coding reliability; (6) analyzing data; and (7) reporting and visualizing findings. Searches were conducted in ScienceDirect and Web of Science databases. Articles were screened based on titles, abstracts, and full texts according to the inclusion criteria. Our analysis revealed that not all studies used theoretical frameworks appropriate for young learners. Quantitative research design was used in 13 studies, ten used mixed methods and five qualitative designs. Eighteen studies focused on motivation, four on engagement, and another four on both. In five studies, children worked on technology-enhanced tasks, while in another four, they participated in collaborative writing tasks, and in others, they worked on tasks aimed at skill development. Technology-based, playful, interactive, and collaborative tasks were found to enhance young learners’ motivation and engagement. In the last section, limitations are pinpointed, and the way forward is outlined.

This study examined the abilities of young English as a foreign language (EFL) learners to identify quickly new words from a nonostensive, indirect teaching context (known as fast‐ mapping) and their ability to commit the words to memory. Seventy‐five fourth‐grade EFL learners heard novel words embedded in sentences. They were then tested for their ability to fast‐map the novel words to their referents and to recognize the new words. Six months later, the children were further tested for retention of the novel words and ability to commit the novel words to memory in a deliberate word‐learning task. These young EFL learners were able to fast‐map a novel word they had heard only once or twice and avoid mapping the novel word onto another new referent. They were also able to retain the mapping immediately after the exposure. However, the retention rate was low after 6 months when they were retested. Children's fast‐mapping and deliberate word‐learning performances related to phonological awareness of the native language and their existing English vocabulary.

This paper reports findings from two empirical studies on students’ reported use of self-regulatory writing strategies and the relationships with their writing performance in a secondary school English as a foreign language (EFL) context. Study One adopted a factorial design using exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis to validate the inferences and uses of a Self-Regulatory Writing Strategy Questionnaire; Study Two explored learner individual differences in developing self-regulatory writing strategies and the predictive effects of these strategies on students’ writing performance. Participants were two convenience samples of 669 and 239 students, who were young EFL learners in junior secondary schools in China. Results provided evidence of the construct validity of responses to the questionnaire. Students in higher grade levels reported more frequent use of self-regulatory writing strategies than those in lower grade levels, and female students reported using self-regulatory writing strategies more than male students. The six strategy factors (i.e., writing planning, goal-oriented monitoring, goal-oriented evaluation, emotional control, memorization, and metacognitive judgment) each had significant predictive effects on secondary school students’ writing performance. These findings suggest the importance of self-regulatory writing strategies to young learners’ writing performance. • The study validates a questionnaire on self-regulatory writing strategies. • Students in higher grade levels reported more uses of writing strategies. • Female students reported more uses of writing strategies. • Self-regulatory writing strategies predict EFL young learners’ writing.

Research Findings: The aim of this study was to construct and validate “English Picture Vocabulary Test (EPVT)” that aimed to assess the very young learners’ (VYLs) receptive and expressive vocabulary knowledge for specific content areas in English as a foreign language (EFL). In this context, EPVT was created in several stages. One of them was initial construct identification with the literature review on various aspects of assessment in early year’s FL learning and development aspects of very young EFL learners. The other stages were “pre-piloting” with 4 experts and 20 VYLs to obtain their perspectives on the test construction and administration and “final piloting” implementation with 5–6 years old private pre-primary school children (251) to ensure reliability, validity, and test quality. After designing the process of the EPVT was clarified considering the ethical and effectiveness issues, the item analysis with Kuder-Richardson 20 and Point-Biserial Correlation was conducted. Besides, the distribution of the items among the ranges of difficulty and the discrimination index values were specified. Practice and Policy: The findings support that EPVT is child-friendly and effective in assessing preschoolers’ English vocabulary receptively and expressively. Furthermore, it could also serve to provide feedback for teaching and supporting for learning L2.