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Abstract
ABSTRACT In the early 1970's, the U.S.A. was riven by social and environmental forces. Environmental degradation, attributed to irresponsible manufacturing and rapid economic growth, appeared rampant. Energy utilisation and conservation became important. Economists predicted a shortage of metals. Methods to slow growth were proposed. In his new course ‘Metals Production and the Environment' H.H. Kellogg reviewed energy and environmental factors in U.S.A. production of steel, Cu, Zn, Pb and Al. Comparison with the early 21st century illuminates the subsequent transformation. Steelmaking BOF's replaced open hearth furnaces. Continuous casting and secondary refining produced higher quality steels. Direct reduction was commercialised. Copper flash and bath smelting furnaces provided efficiency, pollution abatement and energy conservation. Larger equipment treated lower grade ores. Zinc pyrometallurgy ceased because of economic, environmental and workplace issues. Pb use in gasoline and paint was banned promoting human health. 1970 aluminium production was characterised by high energy consumption, fluoride emissions and low recycle rates. Each parameter has improved. Now, the challenge is to decarbonise processes and simultaneously extract/refine critical minerals. To reach ‘net zero' full effort is required including economic adjustments, e.g. directing mineral and energy resources to crucial activities and moderating consumption.
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