Metalinguistic awareness in adult emergent readers. A scoping literature review of empirical studies

Awareness of language structure has been studied in bilinguals, but there is limited research on how language dominance is related to metalinguistic awareness, and whether metalinguistic awareness predicts vocabulary size. The present study aims to explore the role of language dominance in the relation between vocabulary size in both languages of bilingual children and metalinguistic awareness in the societal language. It evaluates the impact of two metalinguistic awareness abilities, morphological and lexical awareness, on receptive and expressive vocabulary size. This is of special interest since most studies focus on the impact of exposure on vocabulary size but very few explore the impact of the interaction between metalinguistic awareness and dominance. 5–6-year-old preschool children with typical language development participated in the study: 15 Russian-Hebrew bilingual children dominant in the societal language (SL) Hebrew, 21 Russian-Hebrew bilingual children dominant in the Heritage language (HL) Russian and 32 monolingual children. Dominance was determined by relative proficiency, based on standardized tests in the two languages. Tasks of morphological and lexical awareness were administered in SL-Hebrew, along with measures of receptive and expressive vocabulary size in both languages. Vocabulary size in SL-Hebrew was significantly higher for SL-dominant bilinguals (who performed like monolinguals) than for HL-dominant bilinguals, while HL-Russian vocabulary size was higher for HL-dominant bilinguals than for SL-dominant bilinguals. A hierarchical regression analyzing the relationship between vocabulary size and metalinguistic awareness showed that dominance, lexical metalinguistic awareness and the interaction between the two were predictors of both receptive and expressive vocabulary size. Morphological metalinguistic awareness was not a predictor of vocabulary size. The relationship between lexical awareness and SL-vocabulary size was limited to the HL-dominant group. HL-dominant bilinguals relied on lexical metalinguistic awareness, measured by fast mapping abilities, that is, the abilities to acquire new words, in expanding their vocabulary size, whereas SL-dominant bilinguals and monolinguals did not. This difference reflects the milestones of lexical acquisition the different groups have reached. These findings show that metalinguistic awareness should also be taken into consideration when evaluating the variables that influence vocabulary size among bilinguals though different ways in different dominance groups.

In first language research, there appear to be two predominant positions relating metalinguistic awareness to language development. One suggests that since metalinguistic awareness is related to primary language acquisition (comprehension and production), general cognitive processes perform a limited role in metalinguistic awareness. The other suggests that since metalinguistic awareness is more closely related to secondary language acquisition (reading and writing), a greater role is assumed by general cognitive processes. There have been some indirect attempts to study the role of language and cognition with respect to second language grammaticality judgments. There is growing evidence that metalinguistic awareness is a reliable indicator of developing second language competence. Furthermore, it has been shown that language aptitude is significantly related to metalinguistic awareness. The present study was designed to investigate the statistical relationship between second language grammaticality judgments and selected cognitive and linguistic variables. The variables studied were second language proficiency, second language classroom achievement, first language reading competence, language aptitude, nonverbal intelligence, field dependence-independence, and a written grammaticality judgment test tapping the ability to recognize, and correct, deviance. Subjects were college students in advanced English-as-a-second-language classes. Multivariate statistical techniques were used to determine the relative contribution of linguistic and cognitive variables to the individual variation demonstrated by the learners in their ability to detect deviance in English. The results showed that second language proficiency, second language achievement in the classroom, and language aptitude were significant predictors of the subjects' ability to make grammaticality judgments. First language reading competence was significantly related to subjects' ability to correct deviance. These observations are discussed in the light of: (1) the relationship among cognition, language, and metalinguistic awareness, and (2) the role of metalinguistic awareness in second language acquisition and second language learning.

Metalinguistic Awareness and Second Language Acquisition is the first book to present an in-depth overview of metalinguistic awareness as it relates to SLA. In this volume, Roehr-Brackin discusses metalinguistic awareness in the context of both child and adult language learning, and outlines the various methods that can be used to measure metalinguistic awareness. The author presents different approaches to metalinguistic awareness, including a cognitive-developmental perspective that explains how the concept relates to literacy, and an applied linguistics perspective that understands metalinguistic awareness as explicit or conscious knowledge about language. Roehr-Brackin explores the role of metalinguistic awareness in language education aimed at young learners, as well as in instructed adult SLA. This book is an excellent resource for those researching or taking courses in second language acquisition, bi- and multilingualism, and language teaching.

This opinion paper considers the role of metalinguistic awareness as a cognitive factor in contact-induced change (CIC). Although research in neighboring fields – for example, language pedagogy and second and third language acquisition – has shown that metalinguistic awareness is a non-structural factor, but does interact with cross-linguistic influences, metalinguistic awareness and its connection to CIC have largely remained undiscussed in contact linguistics. The goal of this contribution is threefold: (i) to put metalinguistic awareness on the agenda in language contact research; (ii) to relate metalinguistic awareness and CIC; and (iii) to showcase how CIC might be linked to different language experiences. To narrow the structural scope, I examine changes in passive constructions and discuss what role metalinguistic awareness might have played in the different developments.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the contributions of general cognitive skills (working memory, inhibition, and reasoning) and metalinguistic awareness to young children's character reading. One hundred eighty‐nine Chinese children, aged from 60 to 78 months, were administered with measures of character recognition, language, metalinguistic awareness (phonological awareness, morphological awareness, and orthographic knowledge), and general cognitive processing (working memory, inhibition, and reasoning) in two kindergartens. Results showed both metalinguistic awareness and general cognitive processing contributed to children's character reading ability. Particularly, after controlling for age, gender, and language, metalinguistic awareness and general cognitive processing, respectively, explained 20% and 16% of the variance in children's character reading, among which phonological awareness, orthographic knowledge, and reasoning made unique contributions to Chinese reading. Of these skills, orthographic knowledge showed the strongest relation to Chinese character reading. Findings highlight that both general cognitive processing and metalinguistic awareness are important for young Chinese children in character reading acquisition.Highlights We investigated the contributions of working memory, inhibition, reasoning, and metalinguistic awareness to young Chinese children's character reading. Reasoning, phonological awareness, and orthographic knowledge made unique contributions to Chinese reading. Of these skills, orthographic knowledge seemed to be the highest correlate to Chinese character reading.

The role of metalinguistic awareness and character properties in early Chinese reading

This paper mainly reviews the features of second language acquisition, and the influential factors on second language acquisition, including the influence of first language, metalinguistic awareness, and culture, along with why these factors are important. Analyzing how these factors affect second language acquisition helps to find out what kind of difficulties learners might encounter during the process of second language acquisition. Both external factors and internal factors should be taken into account. Since learners all over the world have different first languages, their first language plays an important role in second language acquisition, which will affect the learners’ speed of accepting the second language. For the individual part, metalinguistic awareness which is usually formed at a young age, and can be recognized as a kind of linguistic talent also impact second language acquisition. Additionally, culture is a kind of surroundings during the process of second language acquisition, which will affect the learners’ psychological conditions. With the awareness of how these three factors influence second language acquisition, acquires can correct their mistakes more easily, and teachers also should place emphasis on the particular aspects to improve their teaching qualities of the second language.

Reviewed by: Linguistic awareness in multilinguals: English as a third language by Ulrike Jessner Patricia Bayona Ulrike Jessner. Linguistic awareness in multilinguals: English as a third language. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. 2006. Pp. xiii + 170. £16.99 (softcover). In this volume, Jessner offers a meticulous compilation of the most relevant studies in Third Language Acquisition (TLA), while focusing on the interactions between cross-linguistic influences and linguistic awareness. [End Page 319] The author starts by examining a series of characteristics of English as a lingua franca in Europe, which has generated multilingualism both at the individual and societal levels. Jessner points out that the complexity of TLA involves a considerable number of combinations of circumstances under which an individual may acquire an L3, as well as other psychosocial factors like complete or partial attrition. She includes a complete overview of the main research areas in TLA, such as cross-linguistic influences and early trilingualism, as well as a summary of the newer and most salient models to approach multilingualism. In order to make reference to the various expressions of multilingualism, at the end of the second chapter (p. 34), the reader is introduced to the highly functional globalizing concept of “cross-linguisitc interaction (CLIN)” (see also Herdina and Jessner 2002). The term CLIN includes transfer and interference phenomena, as well as code switching and borrowing. In this way, it creates a liaison between two major currents of linguistic studies, language acquisition and sociolinguistics, with regards to the examination of linguistic performance in individuals who have (at least some) competence in more than one language. Even more interesting in this chapter is the introduction to the reader of a debate that the author will develop gradually throughout the book. Jessner maintains that the study of TLA requires the development of a “cumulative-enhanced model” (p. 27) that, unlike the generative perspective, offers an interpretation of the facts beyond a simple amalgamation of TLA with Second Language Acquisition (see Herdina and Jessner 2002 for an earlier less-elaborated version of this point). Although apparently unaware of it, Jessner seems to have reached the same conclusion as Leung (2005) who, in spite of having followed a generative framework in her analysis, similarly found that the L2, rather than the L1, was the main source of transfer for L3 acquisition, and that the Full Transfer-Full Access model would not be applicable to TLA (see also Bayona 2005, Ringbom 2005, among others). Currently, this is one of the most critical debates facing the language acquisition community, the resolution of which will hopefully shed a clearer light on the distinctive features of bilingualism and multilingualism. Chapter 3 includes a section on developmental and educational psycholinguistics, and a summary of relevant research regarding metalinguistic awareness in bilinguals and multi-linguals. According to Jessner, metalinguistic awareness in multilinguals cannot be studied in isolation: it needs to be related to the qualitative changes in the learning process that transcend L2 learning. The core idea of Jessner’s proposal seems to be summarised in the conclusion of the chapter, where she states that “According to the DMM [Dynamic Model of Multilingualism; see Herdina and Jessner 2002] the heightened level of metalinguistic awareness is dependent on the multilingual’s perceived communicative needs often expressed by language mixing, and explicit knowledge and cross-linguistic awareness as expressed in reflections on their language use. [. . . ] Thus, processes of transfer across languages also affect metalinguistic skills and [in] this way metalinguistic awareness becomes evident in both language use and language acquisition” (p. 71). Chapter 4 features an extensive analysis of the Tyrol Study, whose aim was to examine multilingual compensatory strategies such as cross-linguistic interactions and metalinguistic awareness. The study examined the text production in L3 English of 17 students from South-Tyrol who had been in contact with both German and Italian from an early age. Through a qualitative analysis of Thinking-aloud Protocols (TAPs) the researchers found that “German was preferably activated after the retrieval of the target language item [. . . while] Italian was preferably used as confirmer or safety measure” (pp. 100–101). As previous studies have shown (Cenoz et al. 2001, 2003), the Tyrol study also found that [End Page...


 
 
 This 21st century is known as a period in which access to information and communi- cation technology (ICT) are widely open. This brings good in various fields, one of which is educa- tion. In relation to the use of technology in education sector, Kurniawan developed a learning model based on ICT that is a combination of the components of animation technology with aspects of Eng- lish learning specifically reading comprehension. The model is called Creative Reading Learning Model aiming to increase vocabulary understanding, concept and the use of previously owned knowledge. The model emphasizes the role of educators in preparing learning and students in under- standing learning through the help of animation technology that can arise prior knowledge to under- stand learning materials. This study aims to complete the Research and Development phase until the product is complete and analyze the pedagogical implications of the application of Creative Reading as a form of triggering metalinguistic awareness in the test group. Data obtained through observation. The results of this study indicate that children understand most of the vocabulary presented. Related to metalinguistic awareness, there are children who have used English intentionally with an under- standing of form and meaning as the basis.
 Keywords: Creative Reading, English, Learning Models, Reading Comprehension, Vocabulary
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ABSTRACTThe present study looks into the effects of early multilingual education by investigating linguistic knowledge and metalinguistic awareness in young learners at the primary level. The study aims to establish whether children in multilingual education programmes perform higher on a measure of metalinguistic awareness and with regards to their L1 Italian, L2 German and L3 English than children who receive traditional second and foreign language instruction. Two groups of elementary school pupils recruited from 2 Italian institutions in South Tyrol (Italy), each with multilingual and traditional instructional streams, participated in the study. All the participants completed a metalinguistic awareness test (in their L1 Italian), a German and an English test. The results of the study show the significant positive effects of early multilingual learning and a clear overall superiority for the subjects in the multilingual programmes as compared to those in the regular programmes. The results provide support not only for the effectiveness of multilingual education but also for cognitive advantages in multilingual children.

Bilingualism has been reported to be positively associated with both metalinguistic awareness and third-language (L3) acquisition. In the present research, the assumptions were tested that literacy in both first (L1) and second (L2) language (full biliteracy) is needed for bilingualism to be positively associated with L3 reading proficiency, and that positive effects of full biliteracy on L3 reading proficiency are mediated through metalinguistic awareness. L1, L2 and L3 reading proficiency and metalinguistic awareness were measured in 299 German and Turkish-German secondary school students. Overall, fully biliterate students outperformed monolingual and partially biliterate students in both L3 (Δ R2 = .07) and metalinguistic awareness (Δ R2 = .06). An effect of full biliteracy on L3 reading proficiency persisted when SES, gender, general cognitive ability and school track were controlled for. In addition, within the group of biliterate students, positive effects of the individual degree of biliteracy on L3 reading proficiency could be shown to be an indirect effect that was mediated through metalinguistic awareness.

Although metalinguistic (‘offline’) awareness of words as linguistic units has been related to literacy, it is still uncertain whether literacy also affects the units of language that people process unconsciously (‘online’). In this contribution, we first discuss the characteristics of offline and online tasks, opening up the perspective that such tasks vary in nature along a continuum ranging from more offline to more online. Subsequently, we present a study employing three relatively more offline and two more online tasks which we conducted among 83 preliterate and 121 literate children at Dutch primary schools. The results of the more offline tasks reveal a significant influence of literacy on segmentation along word-boundaries, while the results from the relatively more online tasks are less clear-cut with respect to the way in which literacy affects language processing. Keywords: literacy; language acquisition; metalinguistic awareness; online and offline task; word-segmentation; language processing; developmental psycholinguistics; Dutch

Previous and current research identify Metalinguistic Awareness (MLA) as a possible cause of the positive effects of bilingualism on cognitive development and Third Language Acquisition (TLA). Although it has been acknowledged that MLA is strongly affected by literacy and grammar-related activities, only a few studies have focused on the context and method of acquisition of the bilingual learners’ L2 to account for the mediating effect of MLA in TLA. This study tested the assumption that formal instruction in multiple languages enhances MLA in bilinguals which, in turn, facilitates the process of TLA. 42 bilinguals, with different levels of proficiency and MLA in German L2, were tested for their ability to learn an additional language through an artificial language task (Llama-F, Meara, P. 2005. Llama Language Aptitude Tests. Swansea. Lognostics). Correlations and multiple regression analyses were conducted to examine the relationship between bilinguals’ level of explicit MLA and performance in the TLA task. The influence of various potential predictors was considered including explicit MLA; number of languages; overall proficiency and instruction in German L2. The results indicate that bilinguals with higher levels of explicit MLA also perform better in TLA, after controlling for the aforementioned variables in the model. The findings are discussed in pedagogical terms, suggesting that learners should be stimulated and assisted in the process of conscious reflection and manipulation of the language system(s) and the learning strategies developed in previously learned languages, to obtain a positive outcome in TLA.

This Element aims to address the complexity of metalinguistic awareness to achieve a thorough account of its impacts on second language (L2) reading development and promote an in-depth understanding of the factors regulating the influence of first language (L1) metalinguistic awareness on L2 reading. It is guided by four questions: 1) To what extent do L1 phonological, orthographic, and morphological awareness correlate with L2 phonological, orthographic, and morphological awareness in L2 readers? 2) To what extent do phonological, orthographic, and morphological awareness correlate with word decoding intralingually in L2 readers? 3) To what extent do L1 phonological, orthographic, and morphological awareness correlate with L2 word decoding in L2 readers? 4) To what extent do the relations in questions 1–3 vary as a function of linguistic-, learner-, measurement-, and instruction-related factors? This Element is the first to systematically investigate the roles of distinct facets of metalinguistic awareness in L2 reading.

Recently, Bigelow, Delmas, Hansen, and Tarone (2006) arguedthat the differences in the oral performance of their L2 speakers(favoring the more literate ones) were probably due to their lowlevel of metalinguistic awareness (which would be a consequenceof their limited literacy). So as to contribute with evidence for thishypothesis, we collected data from 11 Brazilians, who performedtests of L1 literacy, L2 proficiency and L1 and L2 metalinguisticawareness (phonological, morphological, and syntactic) and arelationship between their L1 literacy and their L2 proficiencylevels was, indeed, found. However, the role metalinguisticawareness (either in the L1 or the L2) plays in this relationshipis not clear. While phonological awareness (in the L1 and in the L2) was related to L1 literacy and L2 proficiency, morphologicalawareness (in the L1, only) and syntactic awareness (in theL2, only) were only related to L2 proficiency. Though theseinconclusive results might be the artifact of limitations in someof the instruments used to collect data, this seems to be a fruitfulline of research.