Metabolic annotation, interactions and characterization of natural products of mango (Mangifera indica L.): 1H NMR based chemical metabolomics profiling

Mango Anthracnose: Economic Impact and Current Options For Integrated Managaement.

Harvest maturity stage affects the concentrations of health-promoting compounds: Lupeol, mangiferin and phenolic acids in the pulp and peel of ripe ‘Kensington Pride’ mango fruit

Decay on mango (Mangifera indica) fruit mostly derived from a fungal disease which was caused by anthracnose invasion and infestation. The falling quality of mango fruit during postharvest preservation was commonly associated with weight loss, softening, vitamin C degradation and decay. This research evaluated the synergistic effect of methyl cellulose (MC) and carvacrol (Car) in the preparation of the edible coating on the physicochemical and microbial characteristics of mango fruit during 28 days of storage at 18°C. Five groups of coating treatments were prepared as follows: A (4% MC), B (4% MC + 0.5% Car), C (4% MC + 0.75% Car), D (4% MC + 1.0% Car), E (4% MC + 1.25% Car). These coating solutions were set 40°C for mango dipping. Mango fruits were individually dipped in the respected MC-Car solutions for 15 s and left out to air-condition for 30 min to create the coating film. These mango fruits were then kept at 18°C for 28 days. In 7 day-interval, experimental fruits were sampled to estimate weight loss, firmness, ascorbic acid content, decay index. Mango fruit pre-coated by 4% MC + 1.0% Car showed the least weight loss (1.61±0.03 %) and decay index (2.19±0.03 mark) while the highest retention of firmness (47.13±0.23 N) and ascorbic acid (25.60±0.13 mg/100 g) at the end of 28 days of storage. Results showed that incorporation of 1.0% carvacrol into 4% methyl cellulose-based edible coating would extend the shelf-life of mango fruit for 28 days of preservation. The edible coating would be a promising and green alternative with minimal environmental pollution.

SummaryNear-ripe ‘Kensington Pride’ mango (Mangifera indica L.) fruit with green skin colour generally return lower wholesale and retail prices. Pre-harvest management, especially nitrogen (N) nutrition, appears to be a major causal factor. To obtain an understanding of the extent of the problem in the Burdekin district (dry tropics; the major production area in Australia), green mature ‘Kensington Pride’ mango fruit were harvested from ten orchards and ripened at 20 ± 0.5 ° C. Of these orchards, 70% produced fruit with more than 25% of the skin surface area green when ripe. The following year, the effect of N application on skin colour and other quality attributes was investigated on three orchards, one with a high green (HG) skin problem and two with a low green (LG) skin problem. N was applied at pre-flowering and at panicle emergence at the rate of 0, 75, 150, 300 g per tree (soil applied) or 50 g per tree as foliar N for the HG orchard, and 0, 150, 300, 450 g per tree (soil applied) or 50 g per tree (foliar) for the LG orchards. In all orchards the proportion of green colour on the ripe fruit was significantly (P<0.05) higher with soil applications of 150 g N or more per tree. Foliar sprays resulted in a higher proportion of green colour than the highest soil treatment in the HG orchard, but not in the LG orchards. Anthracnose disease severity was significantly (P<0.05) higher with 300 g of N per tree or foliar treatment in the HG orchard, compared with no additional N. Thus, N can reduce mango fruit quality by increasing green colour and anthracnose disease in ripe fruit.

The aim of this research was to determine the biological activity of (13),(14)--D-glucan from mango (Mangifera indica L.) fruits on human colon carcinoma cells HT29 (Duke's A) and SW620 (Duke's C). Many natural substances have been described to show anti-tumor activity or limit the dissemination of transformed cells. Among them, there are polysaccharides, which are biological macromolecules consisting of different amounts of monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds. One of such polymers is the water-soluble (13),(14)--D-glucan from mango fruits. The isolated (13),(14)--D-glucan did not induce a significant reduction in the number of tumor cells. The viability of cells did not drop below 94% upon the use of the polymer at the concentration of 225 g/mL. The SW620 cells were more sensitive than HT29, showing a significant decrease in the cellular metabolism after incubation with the polysaccharide at a 250 g/mL concentration. No significant changes in the morphology of both tumor cell types after the incubation with the (13),(14)--D-glucan were observed. The release of nitric oxide (NOx) by the tested cells was dependent on the polysaccharide concentration. There were differences in the NOx release profile depending on the type of cells. The (13),(14)--D-glucan decreased the release of IL-1 and IL-6 by both types of cells and increased the level of IL-10. Moreover, the -D-glucan showed ferric reducing power and reduced the level of the DPPH free radical. Concluding, the analyzed (13),(14)--D-glucan isolated from mango fruits can limit the development of neoplastic cells not through direct cytotoxic action but via antioxidant and immunomodulatory activities.

Summary‘Kensington Pride’ mango (Mangifera indica L.) fruit stored with 2 – 3 cm-long peduncles had significantly smaller anthracnose lesion areas after being inoculated with Colletotrichum gloeosporioides at 107 spores ml–1 than fruit that had been desapped and stored according to normal commercial practice. In contrast, lesion development in ‘R2E2’ mango fruit was not influenced by the presence of the peduncle. ‘Kensington Pride’ fruit, with their peduncles attached, contained significantly higher levels of 5-n-heptadecenylresorcinol and 5-n-pentadecylresorcinol in their peel compared with desapped fruit. At harvest, ‘Kensington Pride’ fruit sap contained approx. 61% of the total 5-n-heptadecenylresorcinol and 47% of the total 5-n-pentadecylresorcinol present in the fruit. ‘R2E2’ fruit sap contained lower concentrations of alk(en)ylresorcinols but, in both mango varieties, retention of the peduncle did not influence fruit ripening. These results suggest that harvesting ‘Kensington Pride’ mango fruit with a long (2 – 3 cm) peduncle maintained alk(en)ylresorcinol concentrations in the peel and in resin duct sap, and contributed to improved fruit resistance against anthracnose disease. Lower concentrations of sap alk(en)ylresorcinols correlated with weaker resistance to anthracnose in ‘R2E2’ mango fruit.

The anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides poses a significant threat to the global mango (Mangifera indica L.) fruit industry. Although histone deacetylases (HDACs) are well recognized to be involved in plant immunity, the role of HDAC-mediated nonhistone deacetylation in the fruit immune response remains elusive. In the present study, MiHDA3, an HDAC from the RPD3/HDA1 subfamily, was identified as a candidate for regulating mango resistance based on the greatest induction of MiHDA3 in response to infection of C. gloeosporioides among the 19 tested HDAC genes. Transient overexpression of MiHDA3 in mango fruit strengthened the disease resistance by enhancing the activities of defense-related enzymes (phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) and β-1,3-glucanase (GLU)) and upregulating the expression levels of MiPAL and MiGLU. These increases occurred concomitantly with increased accumulation of local H2O2, a critical signaling molecule. The opposite effects on resistance and H2O2 production were observed in MiHDA3-silenced mango fruit. Physiological assays revealed that exogenous H2O2 treatment suppressed anthracnose development in mango fruit after inoculation with C. gloeosporioides, whereas treatment with diphenylene iodonium, an inhibitor of endogenous H₂O₂ generation, exacerbated disease symptoms. Furthermore, the mango catalase 1 (MiCAT1), a redox homeostasis-related protein, was confirmed to negatively regulate the resistance of mango fruit to C. gloeosporioides by catalyzing the decomposition of H2O2. Mechanistic investigations revealed that MiHDA3-mediated deacetylation of MiCAT1 at lysine residues K227 and K233 reduced the enzymatic activity and protein stability of MiCAT1, contributing to enhanced resistance in mango fruit. Collectively, these findings highlight that the functional interplay between HDACs and catalases can modulate the immune response in post-harvest fruits, and reveal a novel mechanism by which HDACs enhance mango disease resistance through the deacetylation of nonhistone proteins and the regulation of their biochemical functions.

Tragacanth gum coating suppresses the disassembly of cell wall polysaccharides and delays softening of harvested mango (Mangifera indica L.) fruit

Mango (Mangifera indica L.) fruit can be injured by heat disinfestation protocols imposed to kill insects. We determined if mango fruit have the capacity to acclimate, thereby becoming more tolerant of heat disinfestation treatments. Conditioned `Kensington Pride' mango fruit (7-hour heating-up period to a 37C core temperature maintained for ≤12 hours) showed less pulp injury on ripening following hot water treatment (1.5 hours for previously conditioned fruit to 2 hours for fruit not previously conditioned) than fruit not conditioned before hot water treatment. During treatment, the core reached 47C and was maintained for 25 minutes. Extending the conditioning period by ≤12 hours beyond the 7-hour heating-up period (total of 19 hours) gave no additional benefit. Conditioning did not consistently reduce peel injury that was hot water treatment-induced as indicated by irreversible loss of chlorophyll variable fluorescence.

There is a demand for feasible methodologies that can increase/maintain the levels of health-promoting phytochemicals in horticultural produce, due to strong evidence that these compounds can reduce risk of chronic diseases. Mango (Mangifera indica L.), ranks fifth among the most cultivated fruit crops in the world, is naturally rich in phytochemicals such as lupeol, mangiferin and phenolic acids (e.g. gallic acid, chlorogenic acid and vanillic acid). Yet, there is still much scope for up-regulating the levels of these compounds in mango fruit through manipulation of different preharvest and postharvest practices that affect their biosynthesis and degradation. The process of ripening, harvest maturity, physical and chemical elicitor treatments such as low temperature stress, methyl jasmonate (MeJA), salicylic acid (SA) and nitric oxide (NO) and the availability of enzyme cofactors (Mg2+ , Mn2+ and Fe2+ ) required in terpenoid biosynthesis were identified as potential determinants of the concentration of health-promoting compounds in mango fruit. The effectiveness of these preharvest and postharvest approaches in regulating the levels of lupeol, mangiferin and phenolic acids in the pulp and peel of mango fruit will be discussed. In general spray application of 0.2% iron(II) sulphate (FeSO4 ) 30 days before harvest, harvest at sprung stage, storage of mature green fruit at 5°C for 12 days prior to ripening, fumigation of mature green fruit with 10-5 mol L-1 and/or 10-4 mol L-1 MeJA for 24 h or 20 and/or 40 µL L-1 NO for 2h upregulate the levels of lupeol, mangiferin and phenolic acids in pulp and peel of ripe mango fruit. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

The ameliorating effects of Mango (Mangifera indica L.) flesh and peel samples on plasma ethanol level were investigated using a mouse model. Mango fruit samples remarkably decreased mouse plasma ethanol levels and increased the activities of alcohol dehydrogenase and acetaldehyde dehydrogenase. The 1H-NMR-based metabolomic technique was employed to investigate the differences in metabolic profiles of mango fruits, and mouse plasma samples fed with mango fruit samples. The partial least squares-discriminate analysis of 1H-NMR spectral data of mouse plasma demonstrated that there were clear separations among plasma samples from mice fed with buffer, mango flesh and peel. A loading plot demonstrated that metabolites from mango fruit, such as fructose and aspartate, might stimulate alcohol degradation enzymes. This study suggests that mango flesh and peel could be used as resources for functional foods intended to decrease plasma ethanol level after ethanol uptake.

Polyphenoloxidase (PPO) and perioxidase (POD), the enzymes responsible for causing browning and change in texture and flavor of fruits and vegetables, were extracted and measured in harvested mature pineapple (Ananas comosus L.), mango (Mangifera indica) (Viringe and Dodo varieties) and papaya (Carica papaya) fruits during off vine, open air, room temperature ripening storage. The initial (at harvest) average PPO activity values in Δ Optical Density (OD) per minute per cm3 of enzyme solution were 0.00074, 0.00083 and 0.0010 for early, mid and late season pineapple fruits respectively. The initial average PPO activity values in ΔOD/min/ cm3 of enzyme solution were 0.00152, 0.00121 and 0.0010 for early, mid and late season ‘Viringe’ mango fruits, respectively and 0.0054, 0.0041 and 0.0024 for early, mid and late season ‘Dodo’ mangoes. For papaya fruits, early, mid and late season fruits had initial average PPO activities of 0.00252, 0.00143 and 0.00085 Δ OD/min/cm3, respectively. The PPO activity decreased continuously during the open air ripening storage of all the fruits while the POD activity increased during ripening storage. Variations in PPO and POD enzyme activity were observed across the season and during the ripening period.

Mango fruits being climacteric have a short shelf life, and coating is considered as one of the most popular techniques to prolong its shelf life. Coatings based on starch, olive oil, beeswax and sodium benzoate have been evaluated with reference to the shelf life and quality of mango (Langra and Samar Bahisht Chaunsa) fruit harvested at hard green stage of maturity. The fruit was stored at various temperatures until they ripen. The fruit analyzed for quality parameters at the harvest stage, at the time of ripening of control and at the ripened stage indicated that every coating has a significant impact on the quality and shelf life of the fruit in most of the cases under the limit of P < 0.05. The weight loss and waste percent were the lowest, and the shelf life was the longest in beeswax coating, whereas the quality was best in the case of starch-based coating as compared with others. Practical Applications Mango (Mangifera indica L.) fruit being a climacteric has a short shelf life. Due to this reason, a significant percentage of this fruit is wasted. The following steps have been taken to prolong the shelf life and reduce the wastage. Two varieties of mango fruit, namely Langra and Samar Bahisht Chaunsa, were harvested at hard green stage of maturity. The samples were coated with starch-, olive oil-, beeswax- and sodium benzoate-based coatings. Based on the results obtained for weight loss, waste percent, organoleptic and chemical characteristics, it was concluded that the impact of coating as well as storage temperature on the quality and shelf life of the fruit was significantly different in most of the cases. It was also noted that the shelf life was the longest, and weight loss and waste percentage were the lowest in the case of fruit coated with beeswax, whereas the starch-coated fruit was best in quality as compared with others.

SummaryMature green mango (Mangifera indica L. ‘Kensington Pride’) fruit were stored at 0, 5, 10, 15 and 20°C for 1, 3, 7, 14, 21 and 28 d during 1999 to induce different levels of chilling injury (CI) and to investigate its relationship with endogenous polyamines during storage. In second experiment during 2000, fruit were stored at 5 and 15°C for two weeks and allowed to ripen at 22±1°C to elucidate the relationship between endogenous free polyamines and CI during ripening. CI index on fruit increased as the storage temperature was decreased from 10 to 0°C and the storage period was prolonged from 1 to 28 d. CI symptoms progressed during the ripening period in fruit stored at 5°C for two weeks. Total free polyamines in the skin and pulp were higher in the chill injured fruit as compared with the non-chill injured fruit during storage and ripening except on day 4 of the ripening period. Accumulation of putrescine and depletion of spermidine and spermine in the skin and pulp of the chill injured fruit was recorded during the storage and ripening periods. In third experiment during 2000, amongst different concentrations of three polyamines tested, exogenous application of spermine (0.50 mM) was most effective in reducing CI. In conclusion, putrescine accumulation did not inhibit CI in mango fruit – rather the chilling stress promoted its accumulation at the early stages of ripening. The depletion of endogenous spermidine and spermine with CI and the reduction of CI with pre-storage application of these polyamines indicate that CI development in mango fruit seems to be associated with the biosynthesis of polyamines.

Mango fruit (Mangifera indica L.) is renowned for its pleasant taste and as a rich source of health beneficial compounds. The aim of this study was to investigate the changes in concentrations of health-promoting compounds, namely ascorbic acid, carotenoids, antioxidants, lupeol, mangiferin, total phenols and individual phenolic acids, as well as ethylene production and respiration rates during climacteric ripening in 'Kensington Pride' and 'R2E2' mango fruit. The climacteric ethylene and respiration peaks were noted on the third day of the fruit ripening period. The concentrations of total carotenoids in the pulp, total antioxidants in both pulp and peel, and total phenols of the peel, lupeol and mangiferin were significantly elevated, whereas the concentration of ascorbic acid declined during post-climacteric ripening. Gallic, chlorogenic and vanillic acids were identified as the major phenolic acids in both pulp and peel of 'Kensington Pride' and 'R2E2' mangoes. The concentrations of phenolic acids (gallic, chlorogenic, vanillic, ferulic and caffeic acids) also increased during the post-climacteric phase. The concentrations of all phenolic compounds were several-fold higher in the peel than pulp. Mangoes at post-climacteric ripening phase offer the highest concentrations of health-promoting compounds. Peel, at this stage of fruit ripening, could be exploited as a good source for extraction of these compounds. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.