Abstract
Over the past 25 years, understanding males’ interest in and outcomes of muscularity has developed into a major area of study. Research has been fueled by the development of measures of both the attitudinal and behavioral aspects of a desire to increase muscularity. Our research purpose was to critically assess muscularity research. Using a database search, the ancestry approach, and searching key journals, we identified empirical refereed journal articles with men as participants published from 2000 to 2019 to serve as our data. Our analyses revealed several individual characteristics (e.g., perfectionism, holding to traditional masculine norms) and socio-cultural influences (e.g., media, verbal commentary) that fueled men’s desire to be muscular. In experimental research, exposure to muscular male ideal images has resulted in low body image scores for young men in investigations that utilized pre-test, post-test designs. In survey research, muscularity was positively related to several risky behaviors or behaviors that could become risky if taken to the extreme. Overall, the reviewed research was conducted in western countries and researchers primarily utilized non-probability samples of undergraduate men. Recommendations for future research are provided.
Highlights
Over the past 25 years, understanding males’ interest in and outcomes of muscularity has developed into a major area of study
Recognizing that all individuals exist in multiple spheres of influence simultaneously but that researchers typically do not investigate all spheres of influence simultaneously; the following section is organized into two broad categories: personal characteristics and socio-cultural influences as motivators for muscularity
Researchers may need to identify what specific threats to what aspects of masculinity result in men increasing their desire for muscularity (Frederick et al 2017)
Summary
Over the past 25 years, understanding males’ interest in and outcomes of muscularity has developed into a major area of study. Body dissatisfaction involves identifying differences between individuals’ self-assessments of their bodies and their physical ideals that result in negative views of the body (Grogan 2008). Research on body image concerns and women has often focused on dissatisfaction with weight and the related drive for thinness. (Edwards et al 2014) and is a key factor in body dissatisfaction in men (Jampel et al 2015) While this area of research is growing, it has only been a major focus of research for the past 25 years. We identified the twenty year time frame due to the development of a key measure of muscularity, the Drive for Muscularity (DFM) scale (McCreary & Sasse 2000) in 2000 that served as a major impetus for muscularity research. Specific research questions addressed were as follows: (1) What variables have been studied as antecedents of muscularity? (2) What variables have been studied as consequences of muscularity? (3) What age groups participated in research addressing antecedents and consequences of muscularity? (4) To what extent are the findings of this research generalizable? We were interested in participant’s average age or age range because young men (i.e., college age) may differ from mature men (i.e., men age 40, 50, 60 and beyond) with respect to antecedents and consequences of muscularity
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