Medicinal Plant Cultivation and Phytotherapy in Equine Medicine: Ecological Perspectives with Case Evidence from Hungary

Introduction: During the COVID-19 pandemic, Indonesian society used family medicinal plants to prevent infection by enhancing immunity. Consumption of medicinal plants as herbal medicine should have scientific consideration so that the benefits can be proven and do not cause harmful side effects. Cultivation of medicinal plants is necessary to meet the needs of the family's medicinal plants independently.Methods: We designed a community-based education to improve literacy about the cultivation and utilization of family medicinal plants to farmer groups at Blunyahrejo, Yogyakarta. The study used a quasi-experimental research design with one group pre-post-test design. The group received an intervention in the form of training on the use and cultivation of medicinal plants. Community literacy was measured before and after participants attended the training. The 1st post-test has been conducted right after the training and the 2nd post-test was carried out after 3 months of intervention. The data were analyzed by a paired t-test.Results: The total number of participants who participated was 28 people. Observations have also been done during and after the training. The study showed that there was an increase in knowledge about the cultivation and utilization of family medicinal plants between the pre-test and 1st post-test, 1st post-test and 2nd post-test, and the pre-test and 2nd post-test (9.96%; 1.98%; 12.04%).Conclusion: The training improved the literacy about the cultivation and utilization of family medicinal plants of the farmer group in Blunyahrejo, Yogyakarta. Although the number of participants was quite small, participants showed a positive response during and after the training. Community leaders often reported the activities of farmer groups that showed enthusiasm for maintaining and continuing the cultivation of medicinal plants after the training.

Ecological cultivation is a promising regime for medicinal plant production. For a long time, unreasonable farming methods have threatened soil health and medicinal agriculture and restricted the sustainable development of ecological agriculture for medicinal plants. However, there is a lack of comprehensive discourse and discussion about the pros and cons of different tillage regimes. Here, the research trend and application prospects of no-tillage (NT) are comprehensively reviewed, and the ecological benefits, challenges, and opportunities of the NT system in ecological agriculture of medicinal plants are scrutinized, aiming to call for an about-face in the sustainable conservation and utilization of both phytomedicine resources and agricultural/ecological resources. An exhaustive literature search in PubMed, Bing, Scopus, and CNKI was performed to outline the research trend in conservation tillage and medicinal plants during the recent four decades. The application of NT has a long history and can reduce tillage frequency and intensity and protect soil from erosion and deterioration. NT is often combined with organic mulch to significantly reduce soil disturbance. NT and stover mulching have the advantages of saving manpower and resources and improving soil quality, crop yield, and quality. The ecological and economic benefits of NT in long-term medicinal plant cultivation could be prominent. In developing medicinal plant cultivation, competing with food crops should be avoided as much as possible, and the impact on the production of major grain crops should be minimized. Therefore, the full utilization of soil resources in forests, mountains, and wasteland is advocated, and sustainable soil utilization is the core issue in the process of land reclamation. NT and stover mulching not only inherit the traditional concept of “natural farming”, conform to the basic laws of ecology, as well as the growth characteristics of medicinal plants, but also protect the ecological environment of the production area. It would become the core strategy of ecological agriculture for medicinal plants. Our summary and discussions would help propose countermeasures to popularize NT and organic mulch, promote relevant research and scientific allocation of resources, and adapt to local conditions to achieve precise management and harmonize conservation and production of medicinal plants.

AM fungi are widespread and are found from arctic to tropics in most agricultural and natural ecosystems. They play an important role in plant growth, health and productivity. They increase seedling tolerance to drought, high temperatures, toxic heavy metals, high or low pH and even extreme soil acidity. The cultivation of medicinal and herbal plants has assumed greater importance in recent years due to their tremendous potential in modern and traditional medicine. They are also used as raw materials for pharmaceutical, cosmetic and fragrance industries. Indian system of medicine (ISM) uses 25,000 species belonging to more than 1000 genera. About 25% species are used by the industries. The Barak Valley is the southernmost part of the Assam and consists of three districts namely Cachar, Karimganj and Hailakandi. Different tribes staying here are directly using of medicinal plants for the treatments of different ailments. Comparatively very less attention has been given for the conservation of some of these rare and endangered medicinal plants which are extensively used by the tribes of Assam. So, AM fungi can play an effective role in the conservation of some valuable medicinal plants where Glomus sp. was found to be widely used for the increase yield of important medicinal plants. This review summarizes the data from recent studies to elucidate the potential use of AM fungi for promoting growth and disease resistance in medicinal plants found in southern part of Assam, which in turn provide a natural enhancer for the commercial production of traditional drugs from various important plants.

Slovak Republic (or Slovakia) is a country located in the Central Europe. It lies in the climatically favourable mild zone of Northern Hemisphere. Nowadays, about 200 medicinal plants are used in the official therapy and in popular health medicine, respectively. A wide range of herbs, which are now produced in Slovakia; can be divided into the three broad categories: (a) those collected from the wild (either individually or on commercial scale); (b) contracted supplies from small-scale growers; and (c) large-scale production on agricultural farms. The large-scale cultivation of medicinal plants belongs to the special agricultural production. It is only way of supply the contracted volume and quality of these crops and products. From the current state of medicinal, aromatic and spice plants cultivation in Slovakia, it showed a partial increase of growing areas on arable land [ha], total production [kg] and yield per hectare [kg ha−1]. Presented data were taken directly from the producers from the period of 2010 to 2017. The milk thistle (Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn), plantain (Plantago lanceolata L.), German chamomile (Matricaria recutita L.), mint (Mentha ×piperita L.), and lavender (Lavandula angustifolia L.) were the most cultivated medicinal plants from the acreage of arable land viewpoint. The medicinal crop production at the specialized agricultural farms possesses a great importance in offering appropriate job opportunities for unemployed people, better utilization of marginal land resources and economic returns. The important elements for optimal technology of medicinal plants cultivation are: selection of suitable biological material, soil cultivation, seeding and planting, nutrition and fertilization, control of harmful factors (pests, diseases, weeds etc.), harvest, processing and conservation. The long-term aim in the Slovakian production of medicinal, aromatic and spice plants is a targeted expansion of cultivation areas with simultaneous increase in overall yield production as well as quantity of harvested raw material.

Medicinal plants are used directly as therapeutic agents in various traditional practices, and medicinal plants like Dioscorea deltoidea, Papaver somniferum, Atropa belladonna, Rauvolfia serpentina, Hyoscyamus niger, Digitalis lanata, Datura metel, Digitalis purpurea, Pilocarpusa bonandi, Cinchona ledgeriana are contributing directly several prescribed medicinals. The ever-increasing trend in the use of medicinal herbs and herbal products in therapeutic purpose, research, and trade has created tremendous pressure on supply from their wild source. Under the circumstances of increasing demand, indiscriminate and over extraction from the wild, habitat destruction, etc., many of the naturally growing medicinal herbs are on the verge of extinction and thus unsustainability in the supply of medicinal plants from natural source. Systematic cultivation of medicinal herbs would be a viable alternative to overcome this unsustainability problem of medicinal plants from the wild source and cultivation offers opportunity to optimize yield and achieve a uniform, high-quality product. Several drugs like cardamom, cannabis, cinnamon, ginger, cinchona, opium, linseed, and fennel are now obtained almost exclusively from cultivation source. Benefits of cultivation of medicinal plants are widely viewed as a means for meeting current and future demands for large volume production of plant-based drugs; cultivation can reduce growing pressures on wild medicinal plants and ensure pure and smooth supply; means of earning livelihood, etc. The WHO has published wide-spectrum guidelines for good agricultural and collection practices for sustainable production of raw material of quality and standardized herbal ingredients to ensure quality of herbal medicines. Medicinal plants may be cultivated by the following: (a) agricultural practice at field level and (b) in vitro production of secondary metabolites. Commercial cultivation at field level (open field, homestead garden, forest floor) is an agronomic practice and offers the opportunity to overcome the problems that are inherent in herbal extracts like misidentification, genetic and phenotypic variability, extract variability and instability, toxic components, and contaminants. The agronomic method of crop cultivation includes systematically the steps like site and season selection, selection of crop, true seed or vegetative propagule, land preparation and basal manuring and fertilization, spacing, seed sowing or seedling transplantation, split application of fertilizer, irrigation, intercultural operation, and weed control and harvesting. Large-scale plant tissue or organ culture for the production of secondary metabolites is an attractive alternative approach to traditional methods of cultivation of drug plants. The advantages of this method are many; it is independent of soil, paste, climatic interference, geographical location, and it can ultimately provide a continuous and reliable source of natural products. Considering the cost involvement, plant tissue culture for secondary metabolites is now limited to only high-value compounds such as diosgenin-derived steroid hormone precursors, digitalis glycosides, berberine isoquinoline alkaloid, taxol, paclitaxel, and several other toxoids—complex diterpene alkaloids. Herbal plants have global market worth about US$62 billion per annum, and so they may be a good export item and wealth of a country and should be cultivated in commercial scale like any other conventional cash crops. As cultivation of medicinal plants at commercial scale is comparatively a new concept in many countries to meet the demand of internal and foreign markets and earning livelihood of the rural people, medicinal plants are important natural wealth and herbal wealth, play significant role in providing primary health-care services to rural people, and serve as raw material in traditional and modern pharmaceutical as well as in cosmetic, agricultural, and food industries. Substantial amount of foreign exchange can be earned by exporting medicinal plants to other countries. In this way, indigenous medicinal plants may play a significant role in the economy of a country.

India (8-30 N and 68-97.5 E) exhibits a wide range in topography and climate, which has a bearing on its vegetation and floristic composition. This subcontinent is one of the World’s 12 leading Biodiversity Centres, encompassing 16 different agro-climatic zones, 10 vegetation zones, 25 biotic provinces and about 426 habitats of specific species. It has been estimated that about 45,000 plant species (nearly 20% of the global species) occurs in the Indian Sub-continent. About 3,500 species of both higher and lower plant groups are of medicinal values. More than 80 percent of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAP) are collected from 17 million hectares of Indian forest land. However, many of these, due to over-exploitation have become rare (Rheum emodi, Aconitum deinorrhizum), threatened (Rauvolfia serpentina, Berberis artistata), or endangered ones (Sassurea lappa, Dioscorea deltoidea). Problems arising out of rapid genetic loss of medicinal plants forced the need for international co-operation and co-ordination to undertake programmes for conservation of medicinal plants to ensure that adequate quantities are available for future generations. Cultivation of medicinal and aromatic species gives scope to improve the quality of the drugs. Merits of commercial cultivation of MAP is the outcome of implementation of number of critical factors like locate-selection; good genetically stable planting materials; good agrotechnological practices; nutrient input; harvesting management and implementation of suitable post harvesting techniques to preserve the end product till smart and effective marketing arrangements are made. There is a growing demand today for plant-based medicines, health products, pharmaceuticals, food supplements, cosmetics etc. in the international market. The international market of medicinal plants is over 60 billion US dollar per year, which is growing at the rate of 7 percent per annum. The present export of herbal raw materials and medicines from India is about US dollar 100-114 million approximately per year. India is one of the major exporter of crude drugs mainly to six developed countries viz. USA, Germany, France, Switzerland, U.K. and Japan, who share between them 75-80 per cent of the total export market. CULTIVATION OF MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS (MAP) IN INDIA Techno-economical Considerations for Cultivation of MAP in India Loss of genetic diversity, particularly related to potential medicinal species has taken place; more so in the Worlds’ tropical rain forests and its conservation aspect has, of late, captured the attention of herbal scientists and experts (Duke, 1985). With emphasis it can be stated that the ultimate solution of medicinal plant conservation is medicinal plant cultivation in a scientific way (Foster, 1993). Botanical producer will desire to optimise yield from production; whereas user or entrepreneur will want to manufacture a product of uniform quality. Environmental factors play dramatic roles on biomass yield and composition, and also on its consistency. Proc. Int. Conf. on MAP Eds. J. Bernath et al. Acta Hort. 576, ISHS 2002 192 The process of selection of geographical site is very important and will have to be tailormade to meet the requirement of a particular botanical or a group of botanicals with ecological homogeneity. Elevation of the region has a profound bearing on successful cultivation of MAP. Indian cultivation of Datura innoxia, Atropa belladona, Catharanthus roseus, Rauvolfia serpentina, Cepecacuanha spp. and Hyoscyamus niger are appropriate examples (Table 1). Slope face is another factor, which determines variations of diurnal light intensity and temperature necessary for better growth and development of MAP. Latitude also have pronounced effect on biomass composition e.g. Atropa belladona. Adequate soil moisture and moderate nutrient status generally meet the requirements for growing MAP in India. However in some cases (e.g. Psyllium, Cassia, Catharanthus, Withania, Rauvolfia, Cymbopogon), the plantation can profitably thrive on low fertility soils of warmer regions. Pyrethrum, Solanum spp., Jasminium and Ocimum spp. can be economically grown over medium fertility soils. In case of Papaver, Dioscorea spp., Mentha spp. and Cymbopogon spp., high fertility soil and liberal irrigation will be necessary for successful growth of plantation. Rained cultivation in India is widely followed in Withania, Cassia, Vetiveria and Eucalyptus citriodora. Medicinal and aromatic crops are generally adapted to a wide range of soil texture and pH. Plantago, Cassia, Cymbopogon growing over light soils become high yielding when grown over loam and clay loam (nearly 80% increase in yield in case of Plantago ovata). Vetiveria is unique for its tolerance to soil alkalinity and periodic flooding and water logging of fields; conditions however producing no adverse effect on total oil yield and its composition. Cinchona, Cephalis and Coptis have preference for acidic soils (5-6 pH); whereas species like Aloe, Pandanus, Urginea, Commiphora are grown in soils of higher pH. Day length have been found to influence growth and development of certain medicinal and aromatic crops in India. Commercial cultivation of Mentha, Glycyrrhiza, Coptis, Humulus prefer more than 14 hours of day length for high crop yield whereas citronella, Pelargonium and Pogostemon are short-day plants and essential oil production can be increased by nearly 25% by satisfying appropriate light requirements to these crops. Senna is a day-neutral plant and cultivation success is independent of prevalent day-light duration. In crops like Solanum, Digitalis, Rauvolfia and Dioscorea, effects of photoperiodic cycles (long days) have also been clearly established (Chatterjee, 1986). Regulatory role of light intensity on improvement of performance of a number of medicinally important crops has been established. In Mentha, ample sunshine is necessary at maturity for higher content of oil and menthol content. Economics of cultivation of this species is very much affected if crops are harvested in rainy or cloudy days due to the fact that higher conversion of menthol into menthone. Amongst other plantation crops, low light intensity favours production like Cephalis; thereby necessitating artificial shading during commercial cultivation. Only 20-25 percent day light intensity is recommended for optimum productivity performance. Berberine content is nearly 10-15 percent higher in roots of Coptis japonica, when on average, 70 percent of incident light is intercepted. Additional light promotes the AP accumulation in Digitalis spp. and Solanum khasianum (Table 2.). Reduced light intensity (nearly 40 %) by growing Cinchona under shade tree increases percentage of quinine and related alkaloids by more than 30 percent; as well as bark yield by 30-40 % (Table 3). Role of atmospheric temperature on success of medicinal and aromatic plant cultivation can also be well exemplified. Pyrethrum growing in southern hills is favoured by lower minimum temperature increasing the yield of dry matter and total pyrethrin contents. In general increasing temperature up to a maximum (prior to physiological damage) favour increased secondary metabolite production in many alkaloid and terpene producing medicinal plants. Composition of secondary metabolite may also be changed. Low temperature favours morphine increase in poppy and decreases the total principle content.

Este estudo objetivou realizar atividades de extensão em fitoterapia, a partir de um levantamento de dados sobre as plantas medicinais, fitoterápicos e medicamentos convencionais utilizados por 292 idosos frequentadores de um programa de Atividades Físicas e Recreativas para a Terceira Idade (AFRID), na cidade de Uberlândia-MG, utilizando como instrumento de investigação, um questionário semiestruturado. Dentre os entrevistados verificamos que 88% utilizavam medicamentos prescritos, principalmente para o controle da hipertensão. O uso de plantas medicinais foi relatado por 76,7% dos idosos, sendo as mais citadas: Cymbopogon citratus, Mentha sp., Rosmarinus officinalis, Plectranthus barbatus, Ocimum gratissimum, e Matricaria chamomilla. Dezesseis (5,5%) idosos utilizavam fitoterápicos, principalmente preparados a partir de extratos de Ginkgo biloba, Aesculus hippocastanum e Passiflora incarnata em associação com Crataegus oxyacantha e Salix alba. O uso concomitante de plantas medicinais e fitoterápicos com medicamentos convencionais foi relatado por 86,2% e 81,3% dos idosos, respectivamente. Após a análise dos dados percebemos a necessidade do desenvolvimento de ações educativas para informar e conscientizar os idosos sobre o uso da fitoterapia. Elaboramos uma caderneta e uma cartilha para promoção da difusão dessas informações e o aprimoramento do uso da fitoterapia entre os idosos e, dessa forma, alcançar os profissionais de saúde sobre os riscos e benefícios dessa terapêutica; contribuindo assim para o uso seguro e racional da fitoterapia.

Medicinal plants are becoming important as bio-energy crops, the renewal of industrial feed stock, and bio-remedial sectors of the market, and are benefiting from technological advances that were originally developed for the food chain. The cultivation of medicinal plants deserves top priority for sustaining rural communities and supplying healthy products. The major challenge in the cultivation of medicinal plants after their domestication is the lack of synergy between producers, herbalists, and industry. About 25% of modern medicines are based on the phytochemicals obtained from plants used widely in traditional medicines. Several synthetic analogues have been built on phytochemical compounds isolated from medicinal plants. The use of natural products derived from plants has been on the increase, as is evident from the increased popularity and acceptance of plant-derived health care as well as cosmetics/perfumery products, even though the cost is of these natural products is high. This dual role of medicinal plants as a source of income and in healthcare makes the production of medicinal plants ever-demanding. The production and supply of medicinal/nutraceutical/perfumery herbs is becoming a booming agro-business. Recent observations worldwide indicate that developed countries are also including these plants in their healthcare systems. India has natural plant resources in abundance because of the clear climate variations throughout the year. In India the wealth gained from medicinal plants and products is about 50% higher than that for flowering plant species. Medicinal plant-based industries have great potential for the economic development of India. The oldest literature of the Vedic period is the basis of modern pharmaceutical practice, which uses various traditional medicinal plants. Considering the global and national use of and demand for medicinal plants, the cultivation and bio-prospecting of these plants has great future promise.

India is called the home of medicinal plants due to the vast biodiversity of these plant species found almost everywhere. Around 8000 species of medicinal plants accounting for 50% of the total plant species have been reported in the country. There is probably no state or Union territory in India where one could not explore this wealth and the UT of Jammu and Kashmir is no exception. Certain plant species of high medicinal value are found only in the UT of J&K. The antioxidants present in medicinal plants viz. Echinacea purpurea, Tagetes minuta, Matricaria chamomilla and Hyssopus officinalis are used as an anti-aging therapy. The essential oil extracted from them has a good nutritional and medicinal value. Phytochemicals present in various parts of these plants are used as a remedy for various ailments. These medicinal plants possess anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antirheumatic, antinematic, antifungal, antibacterial and insect-repellent properties that are beneficial for human beings as well as animals. In the modern system of medicine, these plants are effective in contracting the blood vessels thereby inhibiting the sagging of skin and preventing aging. The cultivation of these plants could revolutionize the Indian cosmetic industry. Furthermore, the cultivation of medicinal plants could play a main role in uplifting the condition of Indian farmers by largely increasing the economic status of the farmers in particular and the nation as a whole. Keywords: Anti-inflammatory compounds, Antioxidants, Echinacea purpurea, Hyssopus officinalis, Matricaria chamomilla, Medicinal plants, Tagetes minuta.

The Greek territory provides an ideal environment for growing plants and herbs, which are to be found in abundance, flourishing on mountain sides, where they grow naturally. Medicinal plants are considered as important factors in sustainable development, environmental protection, and public health. The aim of this chapter is to present comprehensive information about the diversity, ecological value, cultivation, and utilization of the economically important medicinal plants such as Salvia sp., Origanum sp., and Sideritis sp., in Greece, stressing their medical-environmental and economical values. The utilization of our natural wealth together with the conservation of biodiversity is issues of paramount importance. Valuable aides to these appear to be the medicinal plants which play a crucial role in both these sectors. Another important fact we should keep in mind is the potential use of medicinal plants and their unconventional applications in sustainable agriculture, enhanced by the selective and multiple biological properties of their essential oils. Numerous and valuable uses are more than possible as the diversity of medicinal plants presents new sustainable opportunities—financial and environmental—for agriculture, and this should be the motive to boost further studies concerning the cultivation of medicinal plants.

Objective: Plants are the source of medicine in Ayurvedic, allopathic & Unani systems. Globally 72000-77000 (17-18%) of the world’s flora is currently utilized for medicinal purposes. More than 200 therapies employed by different cultures to treat physical and psychological ailments use medicinal plants as curative medicines, substantiating the immense scope for commercial medicinal plant cultivation. This present study was undertaken to find out the difficulties, challenges and opportunities in medicinal plant cultivation from the perspective of farmers in the state of Odisha, India, and to suggest possible support that could promote medicinal plant cultivation.Material and Methods: A survey was conducted among 700 farmers using a questionnaire containing 15 items related to socioeconomic status, challenges and opportunities.Results: The study revealed that the education of most of the farmers was below high school; 61% of the participants had their own land, with 10 to 15 years of farming experience. The majority were not into medicinal plant cultivation. The major challenges for medicinal plant cultivation were found to be marketing, finance, climate, lack of experience and training, government support and labour. Support from the government will encourage the medicinal plant cultivation.Conclusion: Many of the farmers are not aware of the demands and support schemes by the government. Serious gaps were seen in availing government support schemes in medicinal plant cultivation by farmers, leading to limited success and productivity. There is a need to create awareness among the farmers regarding the benefits of medicinal plant cultivation and related training programmes to increase production and productivity of medicinal plants substantially. Support from the government will encourage medicinal plant cultivation.

Background: Medicinal herbs are incorrectly believed to be free of risks and are commonly used for self-medication without medical supervision. Jordan does not currently have a national policy on traditional medicine (TM) and/or complementary/alternative medicine (CAM). The present study aims to explore the use of and beliefs about the efficacy of medicinal plants among the Jordanian population. Method: A cross-sectional study was conducted using a self-administrated questionnaire for the duration between April and June 2019. Multiple linear regression analysis was used to identify predictors of positive attitudes towards the use of medicinal plants. Results: A total of 1,057 individuals participated in the study. The participants in our study showed a positive attitude towards the use of medicinal plants and herbs (median score of 33.0 (interquartile range (IQR): 26.0-37.0; equals 68.8% of the maximum total score), and believed in alternative therapies other than chemical drugs for disease treatment, mainly using medicinal herbs and plants. The majority of the participants (77.8% (n = 822)) believe in the efficacy of the use of medicinal herbs and plants and are aware (64.6 % (n = 683)) of the correct and proper way of using these plants and herbs. Pharmacists and herbalist are the main sources of information for the proper use of medicinal herbs and plants. Age was the main predictor of positive attitudes towards the use of medicinal plants and herbs (P<0.001). Conclusion: Efforts must be made to regulate the dispensing of these products, to educate health service providers and to raise consumer awareness.

Medicinal plants (MPs) are an important component of non-timber forest products (NTFPs), which are traditionally used in healthcare and source of livelihood all over the world. In an over-populated country like Bangladesh, the pressure on natural forests is immense; thus the cultivation of MPs can significantly contribute towards improving the livelihood of poor people, reducing the pressure on natural forests and enhancing biological diversity. Notwithstanding the growing recognition of its importance and economic and ecological potential, there has been little research on MPs, especially the cultivation, management and marketing aspects, in Bangladesh. Based on extensive fieldwork in a northern district of Bangladesh, this study explores various aspects of the cultivation, management and marketing of MPs. How collective efforts have brought economic and social benefits to communities was also examined in this study. It assesses the major processes and elements of management, identifies key problems and challenges and indicates ways of maximizing the potential of this important sector. The issues covered in this research include: farmers ’ perceptions and experiences; existing research and policy-making processes related to the MP sector; constraining factors (such as lack of processing technology, inadequate transportation, logistics, financial and storage infrastructure, lack of institutional capacity); markets, finance and networking; land use; pattern of livelihood and value chain issue.

A stable and controlled supply of plant-based medicines depends on the availability of high quality medicinal plants. Cultivation of medicinal plants used for the manufacture of traditional herbal medicines is considered to be a key element in the drive to modernize and internationalize traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and has motivated the cultivation and breeding of selected Chinese medicinal plants worldwide. In parallel, several research groups have developed plant tissue culture and in vitro micropropagation techniques for the cultivation, rapid propagation, and metabolic engineering of medicinal plants. Genetic markers such as microsatellites (SSR, simple sequence repeats; short tandem repeats) and single nucleotide polymorphisms are used for marker assisted breeding and quality assessment. Next-generation sequencing (NGS) technology is rapidly becoming the method of choice for the characterization of genetic markers. An important advantage of sequencing-based approaches compared to electrophoresis-based DNA fingerprinting is that the DNA sequence is independent of the particular method that was used to generate it. Furthermore, DNA sequences can be deposited into public repositories for genetic information such as GenBank that can be searched easily using web interfaces as well as specialized bioinformatics software. Similarly, NGS can be used for transcriptomic and epigenetic studies.

The present paper deals with observation on ethno medicinal uses of plants by the tribal people of Birbhum district, West Bengal. Tribal medicine is an age-old therapeutic system which is traditionally practiced among different tribal communities for their primary health care needs. The tribal people of this district mainly depend upon the forest flora for their livelihood and use herbal medicines in curing the ailments and diseases. Altogether 30 plant species belonging to different families have been recorded from the district. These plant species are effective for various common human ailments. Considering individual plant parts it is found that leaf is used in 20 cases, bark in 12 cases, fruits in 6 cases, stem in 3 cases, latex and flowers in 2 cases, sap and rhizome in 1 cases. Finally the recorded plant taxa have been enumerated according to their botanical names along with families, local or tribal names, parts used, disease cured, mode of administration, etc. This folk knowledge on medicine should be documented immediately and therapeutic validation of these herbal medicines is emphasized. To avoid biodiversity extinction some measures would be taken, like, cultivation of rare medicinal plants, provision of training and extension services to farmers engaged in cultivation of medicinal plants, establishment of herbal gardens in forest areas and creation of seed bank.