Mechanical behaviour of additively manufactured ceramic–epoxy interpenetrating phase composites with bioinspired nacre-like architecture

Interpenetrating phase composites (IPCs) have demonstrated tremendous potential across various fields, particularly those based on triply periodic minimal surface (TPMS) structures, whose uniquely interwoven lattice architectures have attracted widespread attention. However, current research on the dynamic mechanical properties of such IPC remains limited, and their impact resistance and damage mechanisms are yet to be thoroughly understood. In this study, a novel design of two volume fractions of IPCs based on the TPMS IWP configuration is developed using Python-based parametric modeling, with the Ti6Al4V alloy TPMS scaffolds fabricated via selective laser melting (SLM) and the AlSi12 reinforcing phase through infiltration casting. The influence of Ti alloy volume fraction and strain rate on the dynamic mechanical behavior of the Ti/Al IPC is systematically investigated using a split Hopkinson pressure bar (SHPB) experimental setup. Microscopic characterization validates the effectiveness and reliability of the proposed IPC fabrication method. Results show that the increasing Ti alloy volume fraction significantly affects the dynamic mechanical properties of the IPC, and IPCs with different Ti alloy volume fractions exhibit contrasting mechanical behaviors under increasing strain rates, attributed to the dominance of different constituent phases. This study enhances the understanding of the dynamic behavior of TPMS-based IPCs and offers a promising route for the development of high-performance energy-absorbing materials.

Reactive metal penetration (RMP) has been used to produce interpenetrating phase composite (IPC) materiaReactive metal penetration (RMP) has been used to produce interpenetrating phase composite (IPC) materials. These materials differ from classical metal matrix composite (MMC) structures (i.e. a discrete reinforcement within a continuous matrix) in that their microstructure consists of co–continuous or interpenetrated metal and ceramic phases. Two types of IPC materials were produced the first was an Al2O3 (70 vol.%)–AlSi20 (30 vol.%) composite; the second was constituted by SiC particles (~50 vol.%) dispersed in an interpenetrating Al2O3 (32 vol.%)–AlSi20 (18 vol.%) matrix. These composites have been targeted to wear applications and for this reason their tribological behaviour has been studied. The friction and wear tests were carried out under dry sliding conditions against steel (a surface ardened AISI 1040) and ceramic (an Al2O3–TiO2 coating plasma–sprayed onto an AISI 9840 steel) countermaterials, at various applied loads and sliding speeds. The wear resistance of these new composites has been also compared with that of conventional particulate reinforced aluminium metal matrix composites. In the case of dry sliding against steel, both IPC materials showed a mild wear regime, with also negligible wear of the counterface; the coefficients of friction ranged from 0.6 to 0.8 (the lower values being measured at the highest sliding speed). The worn surfaces were always covered by an iron–oxide transfer layer, which formation was clearly due to the abrasive action of the ceramic phases against the steel countermaterial. The presence of this layer reduced the wear damage of both counterfacing surfaces. The IPC materials, moreover, exhibited a greater wear resistance respect to the conventional aluminium MMCs, due to both the high volume fraction of the ceramic phases and to the good interfacial bonding between the interpenetrating phases. Substantially different was, instead, the tribological behaviour of the studied composites against the ceramic coated countermaterial. Severe wear both of the IPC materials and of the countermaterial was observed, in almost all the investigated testing conditions, with coefficients of friction around 0.45. Wear mainly occurred by brittle fracture of the ceramic phases and, once the ceramic phases were fractured, the relatively low fracture toughness of the composite negatively affects their wear resistance.ls. These materials differ from classical metal matrix composite (MMC) structures (i.e. a discrete reinforce– ment within a continuous matrix) in that their microstructure consists of co– continuous or interpenetrated metal and ceramic phases. Two types of IPC materials were produced the first was an Al2O3 (70 vol.%)–AlSi20 (30 vol.%) composite; the second was constituted by SiC particles (50 vol.%) dispersed in an interpenetrating Al2O3 (32 vol.%)–AlSi20 (18 vol.%) matrix. These composites have been targeted to wear applications and for this reason their tribological behaviour has been studied. The friction and wear tests were carried out under dry sliding conditions against steel (a surface ardened AISI 1040) and ceramic (an Al2O3–TiO2 coating plasma–sprayed onto an AISI 9840 steel) countermaterials, at various applied loads and sliding speeds. The wear resistance of these new composites has been also compared with that of conventional particulate reinforced aluminium metal matrix composites. In the case of dry sliding against steel, both IPC materials showed a mild wear regime, with also negligible wear of the counterface; the coefficients of friction ranged from 0.6 to 0.8 (the lower values being measured at the highest sliding speed). The worn surfaces were always covered by an iron–oxide transfer layer, which formation was clearly due to the abrasive action of the ceramic phases against the steel countermaterial. The presence of this layer reduced the wear damage of both counterfacing surfaces. The IPC materials, moreover, exhibited a greater wear resistance respect to the conventional aluminium MMCs, due to both the high volume fraction of the ceramic phases and to the good interfacial bonding between the interpene– trating phases. Substantially different was, instead, the tribological behaviour of the studied composites against the ceramic coated countermaterial. Severe wear both of the IPC materials and of the countermaterial was observed, in almost all the investigated testing conditions, with coefficients of friction around 0.45. Wear mainly occurred by brittle fracture of the ceramic phases and, once the ceramic phases were fractured, the relatively low fracture toughness of the composite negatively affects their wear resistance.

Mechanical properties of 3D printed interpenetrating phase composites with TPMS architectures

A comprehensive review of the mechanisms and structure of interpenetrating phase composites with emphasis on metal-metal and polymer-metal variants

Review on development of metal/ceramic interpenetrating phase composites and critical analysis of their properties

Deformation and failure characteristics of two metal-glass interpenetrating phase composite (IPC) systems were compared against a single-phase glass control. The first system (Captek-P) comprised an interleaved arrangement of flake-shaped Au/Pt/Pd particles, the second (Captek-G) comprised loosely packed spherical Au particles. Both materials contained a fully interconnected network of porosity, formed by thermal fusion of particles at contact points. Glass was infiltrated into the porous networks by capillary action at high temperature. Mechanical properties were evaluated using three-point bend tests and compared to data from the glass control. The strength of the glass control (123.47 MPa) was not significantly different to that of either IPC, however both Captek-P and Captek-G IPCs displayed significantly reduced elastic moduli (55.2 ± 10.6 GPa and 48.4 ± 12.4 GPa respectively) compared with the glass (91.5 ± 9.6 GPa). In addition to significantly higher relative toughness than the glass control the IPC materials exhibit plastic deformation prior to failure. Mixed fracture modes were evident on fracture surfaces. Corresponding stress-strain profiles for the materials show well-defined linear elastic regions that make a gradual transition into plastic behaviour. Strength of the glass control decreased by 28% upon exposure to moisture, a feature echoed by the Captek-G IPC system, however not by the Captek-P IPC, indicating that the morphology of the interpenetrating reinforcement can significantly affect the mechanical properties of IPCs.

Metal foam is a high-porosity engineering material which has many outstanding properties such as lightness, high specific strength and stiffness, large energy absorption during impact and good thermal transportation. Impregnation of metal foams with polymers produces new types of composites such as interpenetrating phase composites (IPCs) and co-continuous composites, due to an interconnection on the macroscopic level of individual phases as a co-continuous 3-D network. The coexistence of the metal and polymer phases allows each to contribute its prominent properties to the composite. This novel composite material is a potential candidate for applications in the automotive and aerospace industries. The present study aims to develop two IPCs from open-cell Al foams of 20 ppi impregnated with silicone or epoxy resin. The compressive behavior and energy absorption characteristics of IPCs are also examined and compared. The results showed that although both IPCs have a similar foam structure with similar density, the disparities in the properties of impregnated polymers lead to distinct mechanical properties. The combination of the Al foam and polymers, both silicone and epoxy resin, yield stiffer IPCs than either of the two individual materials alone. Higher stiffness was found in IPCs with epoxy resin, owing to the brittle nature of the resin. Energy absorption capacity was also increased when compared with the original Al foam.

Enhanced mechanical and thermal properties in 3D printed Al2O3 lattice/ epoxy interpenetrating phase composites

Hybrid manufacturing and mechanical properties of architected interpenetrating phase metal-ceramic and metal-metal composites

Compared with traditional composites, interpenetrating phase composites (IPCs) consist of two phases which are each interconnected in three dimensions. The mechanical properties of IPCs are seriously determined by their various micro-structures. Therefore, it is very important to obtain a reasonable mechanical model to characterize IPCs based on their preparation technologies and realistic micro-structures. A routine is compiled to describe the spatial distributions of interpenetrating phases by solving the phase field equation. And a 3D random finite element (FE) model based on the phase field method is presented which can characterize the realistic microstructure of IPC. The main content of this paper is vibration damping properties of polymer-metal IPC cantilever beam, combined with theoretical analysis and FE analysis. Based on viscoelastic cantilever beam vibration theory, the theoretical prediction formula of loss factor and the natural frequency are deduced. The vibration behaviors of polymer-metal IPC are simulated, and the predictions accord well with experimental data.

Ceramic foam-based interpenetrating phase composites (IPCs) are progressively garnering interest towards the construction of brake components. To comprehend the use of IPCs for real-time braking applications, it is necessary to study their wear behaviour at elevated temperatures. The present study is solemnly envisioned to examine the high-temperature wear and friction behaviour of the novel LM25 aluminium alloy/Silicon Carbide foam (SiCf)- IPCs developed using the gas pressure infiltration process. SiCf of pore densities 10, 20 and 30 pores per inch (PPI) were used for synthesizing the IPCs. A pin-on-disc wear testing apparatus in which the pin specimen prepared from the IPCs connected to a heating element was used to perform the wear study. The experimental design for conducting the wear study was developed using response surface methodology (RSM) with four continuous factors namely pore density (PPI), applied load (N), sliding speed (m/s) and temperature (οC). Each factor was assigned with three different levels which resulted in 30 experimental runs for which wear rate and coefficient of friction were estimated. The study testified that the IPCs prepared using 30 PPI SiCf possessed a low wear rate and higher coefficient of friction compared to those prepared using 10 and 20 PPI SiCf. The worn surface morphology of the IPCs revealed the predominant wear mechanisms at low temperature as abrasive and that at higher temperatures as adhesive mode.

Finite element prediction of effective elastic properties of interpenetrating phase composites with architectured 3D sheet reinforcements

Metal foam is a high-porosity engineering material which has many outstanding properties such as light weight, high specific strength and stiffness, large energy absorption during impact and good thermal transportation. The impregnation of metal foams with polymers produces a new types of composites such as interpenetrating phase composites (IPCs) or co-continuous composites due to the interconnection on a macroscopic level of individual phases as a co-continuous 3-D network. The coexistence of the metal and polymer phases allows each to contribute its prominent properties to the composite. This innovative composite material is a potential candidate for applications in the automotive and aerospace industries. The present study aims to develop two IPCs from open-cell Al foams of 20 ppi impregnated with silicone or epoxy resin. The compressive behavior and energy absorption characteristics of IPCs are also examined and compared. The results show that although both IPCs have a similar foam structure with similar density, the disparities in the properties of impregnated polymers lead to distinct mechanical properties. The combination of Al foam and polymers, both silicone and epoxy resin, results in IPCs stiffer than either of the two individual materials by themselves. Higher stiffness was found in IPCs with epoxy resin, owing to brittle nature of the resin. Energy absorption capacity was also increased when compared with the original Al foam.

Mechanical properties of periodic interpenetrating phase composites with novel architected microstructures

Deep learning-based inverse design framework for property targeted novel architectured interpenetrating phase composites