Abstract
The present study assessed soil physical-chemical characteristics as reliable soil health indicators in six climate-smart land use types; agroforestry, community forest, cropland with soil and water conservation (SWC), crop land without SWC, grassland and control across climate-smart villages (CSVs) in Lushoto (Tanzania), Hoima (Uganda), Wote and Nyando (Kenya). Soils were sampled at three depths; 0–15 cm, 15–45 cm and 45–100 cm and then analyzed for bulk density (BD), pH, exchangeable bases (Ca, Mg, K, Na), extractable Fe, Mn, Zn, exchangeable acidity (ExAc), Electrical conductivity (EC), total carbon (TC), total nitrogen (TN) and cation exchange capacity (CEC). Land use types and sampling depths significantly affected soil properties (p < 0.05), High bulk density (BD) was measured at 45–100 cm depth in grassland (1.47 g/cm3) and crop land (1.50 g/cm3) in Kenya and Tanzania, respectively. BD in Ugandan grasslands was statistically lower (p < 0.05) than BD in other land use types at all depths. Soil pH of surface soil (0–15 cm) ranged from 6.67 ± 0.67 (agroforestry) to 6.27 ± 0.85 (grassland). Ex. bases (Ca, Mg, K and Na) and extractable Fe, Mn, Zn, ExAc, EC, TC, TN and CEC were significantly affected by land uses (p ≤ 0.05). Soil properties were significantly correlated, a positive correlation between silt % (p < 0.01) and pH, sand and Ca (p < 0.05). EC and pH, exchangeable Ca, exchangeable bases, exchangeable K and C: N ratio was observed. There was a negative correlation (p < 0.05) between pH and clay. The study has shown that improving soil properties using land use systems leads to an increase in soil nutrients.
Highlights
The world population is projected to reach 8.9 billion people by 2050, and this will lead to increased demand for agricultural products [1]
Changes in soil properties have been linked to land use changes, and given the dire consequences of soil fertility deterioration caused by land use change, it is important to understand which specific soil quality parameters are affected by agricultural land use and which agricultural practices are responsible for the decline in soil quality parameters [6]
N while Purnomo et al [48] reported a positive correlation between soil pH and organic carbon and total N; the study did report a negative correlation of soil pH with organic C: N ratio similar to what our study reported for Tanzanian soils
Summary
The world population is projected to reach 8.9 billion people by 2050, and this will lead to increased demand for agricultural products [1]. Increase in population will make African countries more vulnerable to climate change, with crop yields predicted to decrease by at least 20% by 2050 [2] This predicted decline in crop yields validates the need to intensify agricultural production using sustainable means by enhancing soil capacity and adjusting land use from low value crops to high yielding crops [3]. East African countries have great potential for agricultural production and have remained resilient to exploitation until the mid-20th century [5]. Both subsistence and surplus food production were adequately supported. The advantages of sustainable land use strategies like agroforestry, community forestry and grassland management are well documented, but key aspects of these systems must be adjusted to the locations in which they are applied
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