Maturidi school’s scientific and polemical methodology against religious sects

‘Aisyah wa one of the wives of the Prophet Pbuh. who atrracted much attention. Among the Sunni, he received much praises –for one thing- because of the breadth and depth of his knowledge, as well as the narration and mastery of his hadith which were considered to be prominent among of the other wives of the Prophet Pbuh. On the contrary, there was a group of people from Shia who instead denounced and cursed ‘Aisha. Starting from this, the author was interested to explore one of the hadith books that tells how the figure of ‘Aisha based on the narration of hadiths compiled by a Shia scholar , Murtad a al-‘Askari. The writing of al-‘Askari can be counterweight to the “bad image” that has been given by the Shia to ‘Aisha. One interesting view was also conveyed by al-‘Askari is that the history of Islam ( from sending of the Prophet Pbuh. to the pledge of Yazid bin Mu’awiyah) can only be truly understood after examining the hadith narration of ummul mu’mini n, ‘Aisha. This research is a literatur review. The discussion of which uses descriptive-analytical method. This paper generally tries to introduce the hadith book titled Dira>sa>t fi al-Hadi th wa al-Tari kh : Aha dith Ummul Mu’mini n ‘Aisha by looking at some general aspects of the composition of the book, including writing background, content, systematic, method, examples of discussion, and also describes the advantages and disadvantages analyzed from several section of the book. Based on the results of the discussion, the author considers that al- ‘Askari tried to put a description of the figure ‘Aisha objectively based on the historical hadiths that originated from ‘Aisha and also the the other companins (sahabah) about ‘Aisha and the event surrounding herself. In discussing the death of the Prophet Pbuh., al-‘Askari included a variety of narration that seems contradictory about the Prophet’s death moments,”whether in the lap of ‘Aisha or ‘Ali?!”. Based on the tarji h method, al- ‘Askari more favored the narration of hadith which said that the Prophet Pbuh had died in the lap of ‘Ali because more were narrated ( four companions /sahabah). Interestingly, the source of the narration referred to by al-‘Askari is almost entirely derived from a number of well-known Sunni scholars. This was done to show how scientific research must be carried out without looking at affiliations of certain religious sects. Keywords : The Narration Hadith of ‘Aisha; Murtad a al-‘Askari;The Hadith Book of Shia; the Hadith of the Death of the Prophet Pbuh; The Islamic History.

The family's function, particularly how parents care for their children at home, has a significant impact on how youngsters develop their religious spirit. The attention of parents and the roles of each parent should complement one another in order to create a whole and harmonious family that can best carry out religious orders. If parents don't pay attention to their kids and miseducate them, kids will be readily swayed by things that are bad. Based on Islamic religious principles given in the Koran and the Prophet's sunnah, Islamic religious education shapes a person's physical and spiritual qualities. It is anticipated that both facets will develop in harmony in order to prevent a disconnect between spiritual and material requirements. Selfishness will be avoided if a person leads a balanced life. The goal of this study is to ascertain the extent to which parental involvement in the delivery of Islamic religious education and its relevance to students' religious attitudes are related. This study employs the descriptive analytic method and uses interviews and questionnaires as its data sources. Data analysis, a crucial step in the scientific method, is done to use the study that has been done on the sampled pupils to provide a response to the research question. By analyzing the data, it can be concluded that parents give their children's religious education a lot of thought, which has an impact on the religious attitudes of students who behave well. In addition, the school fulfills its responsibility as an educational institution by offering lessons and extracurricular activities that can help students develop their religious attitudes, as can be seen from interviews with the school.

Are good and evil an essential quality of existence? Or is this attribute imposed on the entity from outside? … etc. The problem area has been discussed in different ways among Islamic theologians. Another way of questioning the theological inquiry in question is what is the source of religious responsibility? Is the theological reason that makes man responsible (?) or is it the guidance of the prophet and the revelation (?) …etc. questions lead us to the same answers? The concepts that are indirectly revealed by the theological discussions in question are the concepts of "fatrah" and "ahl al-fatrah". The new problem that entered our agenda with this couple of concepts, what is the position of "ahl al-fatrah" in terms of religion (?) What is the position of the Prophet's parents (?) …. etc. The discussions are secondary derivatives of the main discussion in question. Two attitudes have been displayed in these theological debates in the Islamic tradition. According to the first of these, he assumes that he can accept the existence and oneness of God, starting from the human universe, with pure reason without the need for revelation. According to the other view, while accepting that the mind has the potential to determine the existence and unity of Allah, it assumes that responsibility can only be possible with Allah's orders and prohibitions. The main reason why the parties have different approaches to the issue is; Are “al-husûn” and “al-kubûh” essential qualities of existence? Or is the "value/norm" as a quality imposed on the being by religious orders and prohibitions? shaped by the discussion. The approach that refers to the parents of prophet Muhammad in theology is mostly the evaluation of scholars who understand that goodness "al-husûn" and evil "al-kubûh" are not the essential quality of existence, but are communicated with orders and prohibitions. Conceptualized as "ahl al-fatrah" and this group, which also included the parents of prophet Muhammed, could be included in the discussion from this point of view. According to this approach, man needs the leadership of revelation to be responsible. Those who do not receive revelation are not liable. “Ahl al-fatrah” (people of the interregnum) are also people who, due to a valid excuse, did not have the opportunity to receive revelation. The parents of the prophet are also from this group. In our study, the data on this theological subject will be analyzed in the context of research methods of social sciences.

In 1869, the Académie des sciences morales et politiques announced a contest for the best essay on the history of educational doctrines in France. Because of the dominant role of religious orders and sects in the philosophy of education, and the common vocabulary of religion and education (e.g., canon, seminary, discipline), it was clear that such a history would also be a synthesis of the major doctrines of Christianity throughout the centuries. Attention to the historical and social impact of religion had become one of the central activities of the positivist revolution, and it is important to recall the context in which the call for a history of educational doctrines arose. Ernest Renan had published his Vie de Jésus in 1863, calling for a new religion in which science would replace the doctrines of traditional faith, and positivism was to become the basis of Gustave Lanson's literary history. In the wake of Charles Darwin, works such as Claude Bernard's Introduction à l'étude de la médecine expérimentale (1865) reinforced the claim that science, unlike Christianity, did not require the agency of "grace" or "faith" (the terms of Luther's return to Christ without the intermediary of the Church) in order to exercise its authority. By reducing religion to the status of a social phenomenon susceptible to scientific methods of inquiry, positivism became an important factor in the trend toward the rule of republican laïcité. The contest, held in the waning years of the Second Empire, was to herald the end of religious domination of education by relegating it to the pages of history.KeywordsPedagogical ScienceMoral InstructionNational EducationFrench LanguageTraditional FaithThese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.

In his play The Life of Galileo, Bertolt Brecht explores the growth of ideas within an innately conservative society. During the second century A.D. Ptolemy, elaborating on ideas first put forward by Aristotle, developed a complete cosmological model of the universe that placed the moon, sun and the planets in orbit around the earth. Although this model was challenged by the Polish priest Nicholas Copernicus as early as 1514, the Catholic Church remained faithful to the Ptolemaic model throughout the sixteenth century for theological reasons to do with the centrality of humankind in God’s creation. However, in 1609 Galileo utilised the newly invented telescope to provide evidence in support of Copernican ideas. For daring to promote these ideas Galileo was persecuted by the Church, made to discontinue his work and forced to renounce any notion that challenged the existing religious and social order.2 The words given to Galileo by Brecht quoted above are a plea to conservatives to put aside their own interests in favour of the growth of knowledge and the wider interests of humankind. The persecution suffered by Galileo in his attempt to challenge accepted scientific thinking also finds a resonance in social and political ideas. Indeed, Brecht himself uses the trials of Galileo as an allegory for the persecution of Marxists. The underlying theme of this book is a similar assertion: that even after fifty years of struggle, the discourse on human rights has yet to achieve the necessary victory over previous thinking that places the interests of the state and the state system above the promotion of human dignity.KeywordsInternational RelationInternational PoliticsRegime FormationWorld SocietyInternational RegimeThese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.

Le Quaternaire dans l'enseignement secondaire français : sa disparition aujourd'hui à la lumière des enjeux socioculturels de son introduction au 19ème siècle

In 1935, in the midst of the Great Depression, Rena ?. Jepsen opened the North Rockford Hospital in Rockford, Illinois, as a convalescent hospital to provide nursing care for aged and convalescent patients. The idea for the hospital was born out of the need for a new approach to the care of aged and convalescent patients whose needs were not being met by either conventional acute care hospitals or the county almshouse; but for her, it was also a means to support her family of six children. This essay examines how the evolution of modern medical practice and the economics of the mid-1930s created the need for new types of hospital care in Illinois and led to new paradigms in healthcare delivery.From the mid-nineteenth century to the 1920s, care for the aged and convalescent had largely been provided in their homes by visiting nurses. Wealthy and middle-class families who were able to pay for the services of a visiting nurse would contract with a visiting nurses' association, which maintained a registry of available nurses. The poor and indigent, however, had to rely on the nursing support provided by the local public health department, or a charitable organization. For the indigent aged, the county almshouse became the home of last resort when they became unable to live independently.By the 1920s, the practice of sending out visiting nurses began to decline. It was becoming clear to many that a better place to practice medicine was the hospital; advances in medical practice required technology, skills, and an antiseptic environment not available in most homes. The visiting nurses found that more of their time was spent dealing with basic issues of sanitation and cleanliness than with actual patient care when caring for patients in the home.1The concept of the hospital itself was undergoing a radical change at this time. From the Middle Ages to the mid-nineteenth century, hospitals operated by religious orders and charitable organizations had been viewed as the last refuge of the indigent and the dying. A new model of healthcare delivery, based on a scientific approach to medicine and sound business management principles, began to emerge in the late nineteenth century. Pasteur's theory of germs and Lister's development of antiseptic practice, together with the discovery of x-rays and effective antibiotics, made the modern hospital a place where scientific methods resulted in recovery and cures. In this model, instead of providing a last refuge for the poor, the hospital became a place where a growing middle-class patient population could expect to receive effective treatment.The increasing sophistication of medical practice also led to greater specialization of hospital operations. While most hospitals provided emergency care, treatment of disease, and a sterile environment for performing operations, the need arose for specialized care facilities to care for specific patient groups such as children and the elderly, and to provide specialized treatment for specific diseases, such as tuberculosis.One such specialized facility was the convalescent hospital. In order to more efficiently use their technologically advanced facilities, hospitals tended to focus on short-term procedures, such as surgeries and caring for accident victims. Convalescent care - care for the chronically ill and the aged, who might require hospital stays of indefinite length, and patients recovering from medical procedures - was seen as an inefficient use of hospital facilities. This led to the development of the convalescent hospital as a separate entity in the late nineteenth century.2However, scientific medicine and specialization of medical practice came at a cost. Building modern facilities and equipping them with the latest technologies was expensive, requiring extensive outlays of capital. While the indigent patients of the earlier charitable hospitals had received minimal care for free, the increasingly middle-class patient population of the early twentieth century had to absorb the cost of advanced treatment, a burden for many in an age when healthcare insurance was largely nonexistent. …

Although in many respects the postconciliar development of Catholic thought has passed by Jacques Maritain, the questions which he raised in epistemology and metaphysics retain their relevance for the Catholic theologian. His epistemology and metaphysics still have a word to say, for example, in the current discussion over the scientific method of Catholic theology, and it would be imprudent to ignore the pertinence of his philosophy of knowledge and being to the current debate about the relation of Catholic theology to philosophy and the empirical sciences. With the exception of Karl Rahner and Hans Urs von Balthasar, no Catholic systematic theologian in this century has been able to present a program for the intellectual unification of Christian experience which can match Maritain's speculative synthesis in its range, depth, consistency, and sophistication. While Rahner and von Balthasar have been guided in their speculative unification of Christian experience by the ascetic and mystical world view of St. Ignatius Loyola, the religious source of unity in Maritain's Christian humanism was his deeply lived commitment to the spiritual theology of the Order of Preachers. Both Jesuit and Dominican spirituality are respected by the Catholic church as vital and orthodox religious traditions. Nevertheless, there are significant differences between the two spiritualities, and these differences have given a distinctive stamp to the theology, the philosophy, and the humanism of the two religious orders. Furthermore, Hans Urs von Balthasar's theological inspiration comes from the church fathers, and his theology of culture is characterized by a pronounced distrust of Neo-Thomist philosophy as a speculative unifier of Christian experience.1 Karl Rahner is a transcen-

The word ‘secular’ originally distinguished parochial clergy from those in religious orders; more generally it distinguished civil political power from that of the church. ‘Secularisation’ was used to describe the appropriation of church property by the (secular) state, for example, Henry VIII's dissolution of the monasteries in England. The word therefore presumes opposition. As scientific methods of inquiry became more sophisticated from the seventeenth to the nineteenth century, thinkers began to wonder whether such methods were applicable to human beings themselves; several of the founding fathers of sociology and social anthropology posited their theories in deliberate opposition to religion. Just as Christians had in earlier centuries treated pagan beliefs as superstitions, so from the Enlightenment Christian beliefs in their turn were regarded as superstitious. The scientific study of humanity was thus originally a deliberately anti-religious, or more precisely anti-Christian, programme. Karl Marx is but one example. To the extent that Protestant approaches to Christianity had dismissed aspects of Catholicism as superstition and also sought to adjust Christian belief to new scientific discoveries, Protestants may be regarded as ‘covert’ secularisers. It is not necessary here to enter into the debate about the relationship between the rise of modern science and the development of industrial capitalism in western Europe. But at least since Max Weber sociologists have linked Protestantism and the rise of capitalism.

Delimiting Religion

2 August 2009 Dear Editor, RICHARD DAWKINS MISREPRESENTED In your June editorial comment, Are We Still Evolving?, you discuss On the Origin of the Species by Charles Darwin and The God Delusion by Richard Dawkins. Immediately after their publication, both these books were disparaged by religious believers, and were alleged to say things that they did not say – often by people who had not read them carefully, or at all, You state that, ‘The God Delusion makes the case for atheism, but attacks religion. This polarisation of views, evolution versus religion, is unfortunate and unnecessary because many feel they are not mutually exclusive’. First, one cannot make a case for atheism without attacking theism. Second, because some people think that science and religion are compatible does not mean that it is wrong for Dawkins to argue the opposite – see pages 77–85 of the 2007 paperback edition of The God Delusion.1 Third, challenging conventional wisdom and polarising views is fundamental to the scientific process. Chapter 8 of The God Delusion explains why Dawkins thinks it is important to promote rationalism (including science), and denounce superstition (including religion) and the widespread support for believing in ideas for which there is no strong evidence (faith). It is true that ‘many scientists are able to reconcile accepting the theory of evolution with maintaining their religious belief’. However, even in the USA, where there are high levels of religious observance, only 7.0% of the members of the elite National Academy of Sciences believed in a personal god in 1998; biological scientists, with specialist expertise in evolution, had the lowest rate of belief.2 Less accomplished scientists were more likely to believe in a personal god. You also claim that ‘the near universality of religion suggests that belonging to a religion may confer a survival advantage on the individual’. Even if belonging to a religion did confer a survival advantage, this would not mean that religious beliefs are correct. Dawkins devotes Chapter 5 of The God Delusion to discussing why all known cultures have religion. The likely explanation is that humans yearn for explanations about the world. In the past, people made up elaborate stories about why things exist, and some of these stories became religious dogma that often persists even when contradicted by evidence (whereas science constantly re-evaluates ideas in the light of new evidence). Evolution has moulded young children's brains so that they tend to believe what adults tell them: this is valuable for survival (do not eat that poisonous plant), but can perpetuate myths (give me the child until he is seven and I will give you the man). The fact that there are hundreds of mutually contradictory religions strongly suggests that they were invented by humans. Most people are Christians or Muslims or Hindus for the same reason they speak English or Arabic or Hindi: because of an accident of birth. You allege that Dawkins blames religion for war. He does not: he blames religion for some wars. He certainly points out that religious wars and killings have been far too frequent; for example, more than a million people were killed in religious riots between Hindus and Muslims in India at the time of partition. But Dawkins also writes on pages 259–260 that ‘it is frequently and rightly said that wars, and feuds between religious groups or sects, are seldom actually about theological disagreements’ and ‘I do not deny that humanity's powerful tendencies towards in-group loyalties and out-group hostilities would exist even in the absence of religion’. Even if one disagrees with The God Delusion, the book repays careful reading, and it deserves to be quoted accurately. As an aside, I note that Charles Darwin is not the only scientist to have a town named after him. Two towns, in Georgia and New Jersey, are named after Thomas Edison.

During the Protestant Reformation of 1560, most of Scotland’s Catholic churches faced widespread destruction. Items considered idolatrous were targeted and destroyed. Significantly, stained glass windows were smashed and buried on site, or otherwise left to decay, and were replaced by austere, plain glass. In recent decades, archaeological excavations have recovered shards of this glass from several ecclesiastical sites across Scotland, allowing scholars the opportunity to better understand medieval liturgy and worship. Scientific analyses have been conducted to determine the ingredients used in manufacturing this glass, and to infer a place and timeframe of origin. These studies have proven invaluable in gaining an understanding of medieval trade links between Scotland and Europe, as well as of building and decorative phases for individual churches. Here, we consider the glass as an integral part of daily worship. Decorative patterns and colours of surviving fragments of glass, approximately dated, are considered in the wider and evolving context of medieval worship, and the prevailing religious Orders that were in Scotland at the time that many of these churches were founded. Two case-study sites are discussed in depth: Elgin Cathedral in Moray, which has yielded a significant number of glass shards through archaeological excavations; and Dunfermline Abbey in Fife, Scotland’s royal mausoleum. This inter-disciplinary study is the first to consider Scottish stained glass in terms of both its physical and chemical properties, as well as its wider religious meaning. This methodology will form the basis of future research to—for the first time—catalogue, scientifically analyse and liturgically contextualise all identifiable assemblages of Scottish medieval church glass.

Dini gruplar, ortak inanç esasları etrafında toplanan bireylerin meydana getirdiği sosyal yapılardır. Bu yapılar kendi iç aktivitelerini yerine getirirken toplumsal bir dünyada yaşamanın gereği olarak diğer kurumlarla da etkileşim içerisinde olagelmişlerdir. Özellikle siyaset kurumuyla olan ilişkileri ve bu ilişkilerin sonuçları günümüzde kamuoyu tarafından yoğun olarak tartışılmaktadır. Son dönemlerde yaşadığımız olayların toplumu getirdiği nokta problemin ne kadar önemli olduğunu ortaya koymaktadır. Bugün yaşanan olaylar tarihten kopuk sosyal hadiseler olmayıp her bir olayın tarihsel geçmişi ve arka planı vardır. Bu nedenle bugün gözlemlenen dini gruplar siyaset ilişkisi yüzlerce yılda meydana gelen birikim ve tecrübelerin günümüze yansımasıdır.Geçmiş anlaşılmadan bugün yorumlanamaz ilkesinden hareketle tarihimizdeki önemli dini gruplardan olan tarikatların siyasal yapı ile olan ilişkilerini ele alıp incelemek günümüzde meydana gelen olayları çözümlemeye ve anlamaya yardım edecektir. Bu amaçla Osmanlı toplum yapısı içinde önemli bir dini grup olan Halvetî Tarikatı’nın siyasi yapılarla olan ilişkilerini ve oynadığı siyasal rolü bu makalede ele alıp inceleyeceğiz. Bu yapı üzerinden geçmişten günümüze bir projeksiyon tutarak siyasi yapıların dini gruplardan beklentisini, dini grupların da siyasal yapıyla olan ilişkilerini ortaya koyacağız.

In modern times, the development and exchange of scientific research were promoted greatly by establishments of scientific societies in the west. In the second half of the 17(th) century, medical societies such as the Berlin Royal Society of Medicine, the Paris Surgical Society, the Edinburgh Medical Society and the London Medical Society appeared in sequence, which promoted the progress of European medicine greatly by means of medical conferences and journals. At the end of the 19(th) century, in order to promote medical missions and education, western missionaries drew lessons from the medical society system and founded the China Medical Missionary Association (CMMA). The association was dedicated to work in four fields: terminology standardization, missionary hospitals, medical education and study on endemic disease. CMMA accelerated the development of medical missions and the spread of western medicine. As members of CMMA must be of religious orders, many scholars were not qualified to join in, which resulted in limitation of academic research and exchange. With the return of overseas students, Chinese scholars majoring in western medicine enhanced the awareness of medical knowledge. As a result, western medical societies were established one by one, including the Shanghai Medical Association, the Chinese Pharmaceutical Association, the Chinese Medical Association and the Society of Chinese Medicines of the Republic of China. Established in 1915, the Chinese Medical Association had members who also belonged to the CMMA, so the Chinese Medical Association made reference to the CMMA for its organization, function, operating mechanism, journals, etc..

Digital heritage: challenges and opportunities in the access and organisation of digital knowledge in contemporary societies