Market Chain Analysis of Fodder Crop Seeds in Eastern Uttar Pradesh, India

This paper aims to understand the structure of milk supply and to make a comparison between informal and formal milk marketing system with a view to measure the extent of transaction costs divergence in Punjab province of Pakistan. Livestock contribution in Pakistan’s GDP is 11.6 percent and the total milk production for year 2015 was recorded as 52.632 million tons. The descriptive research design was used with stratified sampling techniques for gathering primary data source from four districts having a rich population of livestock and milk producers. Different analytical techniques as marketing efficiency, marketing margin and DEA analysis for profit efficiency were applied for comparative estimation of two marketing systems. The empirical results indicate that the marketing margin (MM) of various middlemen, milk producer’s share in consumer price (DPP) was 20%, 12% higher respectively. The mean value of measure of marketing efficiency (MME) and profit efficiency for informal and formal milk marketing channels was estimated 1.8 and 0.77 respectively. Profit efficiency value for informal marketing channels was 0.37 higher in comparison to formal system. For informal milk marketing system, the traditional milk collector (Dhodi) is alone significant player in marketing chain whereas formal milk marketing chain is occupied by a series of middlemen, further there is involvement of huge fixed cost for producing UHT packed milk. Thus informal milk marketing system is dominating over formal milk marketing channels in Pakistan. Finally, we document some policy recommendation as a potential source amid at improving the situation of milk supply in Pakistan.

Potato market access, marketing efficiency and on-farm value addition in Uganda

The paper provides an estimate of the marketing efficiency of BINA Sarisha-11, the mustard variety of Brassica juncea, developed by BINA and grown in Rangpur, Jamalpur, and Magura. It looks at various aspects of marketing: the cost of cultivation and returns, the identification of participants in the marketing chain, marketing costs, margins, and efficiencies at different levels. A total of 180 respondents were selected through stratified random sampling comprising 90 farmers and 90 traders. The statistical tools used included profitability and marketing efficiency models. The results showed that the cultivation of BINA Sarisha-11 was profitable as an average net return of BDT 51,291 (423.64 USD) per hectare was estimated with a benefit-cost ratio of 1.94. Marketing efficiency varied among the chains; the Farmer to Retailer to final Consumer chain was the most efficient, least costly, and had the highest producer share of 64.61%. On the contrary, longer chains were costlier and offered reduced producer shares. Farmers complained of seed unavailability, high prices of fertilizers, and lack of training, while traders complained of unstable prices and high costs of transportation as major challenges. The study identifies that there is a need for policy intervention to smoothen the marketing chains, improve access to inputs, and reduce problems related to market infrastructure. This will ensure the value chain of BINA Sarisha-11 is profitable and efficient, adding to the overall sustainability in mustard cultivation within Bangladesh.

The integrated food supply chains have emerged as the fastest growing and widely visible market phenomenon. Yet in most developing countries, small scale milk market agents and chains supplying fresh milk and traditionally processing dairy products play a major role. They are the key outlets for small holder dairy producers and are the main source of fresh milk supply for consumers. These traditional smallscale markets account for over 80 per cent of the marketed milk in many countries in South Asia, sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America (Omore et al., 2004). In India too, more than 80 per cent of milk marketed still passes through these traditional milk marketing channels (Steven et al., 2008). The much hyped co-operative dairy development in India has also not been able to significantly affect the dominance of these traditional milk marketing channels. But, the functioning of the traditional milk market and its potential in income and employment generation has not been conceived properly in India. The understanding of the traditional milk marketing and processing chains are helpful in evolving policies and developmental strategies for creating an efficient milk marketing system. A study was planned in one of the backward states of India, namely Assam. In this state, 97 per cent of milk marketing is controlled by traditional milk market agents. (Kumar et al., 2007; Sirohi et al., 2009). The organised marketing and processing of milk in Assam remains insignificant. Formal milk pasteurisation and dairy product processing channels, both under co-operative and private sectors, account for hardly 3 per cent of the total locally marketed milk. The smallholder producers in the state have poor market access. The lack of alternative market options forces them to sell in the traditional market. In this backdrop, this study was undertaken with the objectives of (i) examining the costs and returns in traditional milk marketing and processing, (ii) estimating the milk producer’s share in consumer rupee and marketing margins of different actors in the marketing chain, (iii) assessing the potential of traditional milk market in employment generation, and (iv) identifying the factors for scaling up the volume of business of the informal milk market agents in the state.

Yield gap analysis is useful to understand the relative contribution of growth-defining, -limiting and -reducing factors to actual yields. This is traditionally performed at the field level using mechanistic crop growth simulation models, and directly up-scaled to the regional and global levels without considering a range of factors intersecting at farm and farming system levels. As an example, these may include farmers' objectives and resource constraints, farm(er) characteristics, rotational effects between subsequent crops or decisions on resource allocation and prioritization of crop management. The objective of this thesis is to gain insights into yield gaps from a farm(ing) systems perspective in order to identify opportunities for sustainable intensification at local level. Three contrasting case studies representing a gradient of intensification and capturing a diversity of agricultural systems were selected for this purpose, namely mixed crop-livestock systems in Southern Ethiopia, rice based-farming systems in Central Luzon (Philippines) and arable farming systems in the Netherlands. A theoretical framework combining concepts of production ecology and methods of frontier analysis was developed to decompose yield gaps into efficiency, resource and technology yield gaps. This framework was applied and tested for the major crops in each case study using crop-specific input-output data for a large number of individual farms. In addition, different statistical methods and data analyses techniques were used in each case study to understand the contribution of farmers' objectives, farm(er) characteristics, cropping frequency and resource constraints to yield gaps and management practices at crop level. Yield gaps were largest for maize and wheat in Southern Ethiopia (ca. 80\\% of the water-limited yield), intermediate for rice in Central Luzon (ca. 50\\% of the climatic potential yield) and smallest for the major arable crops in the Netherlands (ca. 30\\% of the climatic potential yield). The underlying causes of these yield gaps also differed per case study. The technology yield gap explained most of the yield gap observed in Southern Ethiopia, which points to a lack of adoption of technologies able to reach the water-limited yield. The efficiency yield gap was most important for different arable crops in the Netherlands, which suggests a sub-optimal timing, space and form of the inputs applied. The three intermediate yield gaps contributed similarly to the rice yield gap in Central Luzon meaning that sub-optimal quantities of inputs used are as important in this case study as the causes mentioned for the other case studies. Narrowing the yield gap of the major crops does not seem to entail trade-offs with gross margin per unit land in each case study. However, the opposite seems to be true for N use efficiency and labour productivity particularly in Southern Ethiopia and Central Luzon, and to a less extent in the Netherlands. This means that (sustainable) intensification of smallholder agriculture in the tropics needs to go hand-in-hand with agronomic interventions that increase land productivity while ensuring high resource use efficiency and with labour-saving technologies that can reduce the drudgery of farming without compromising crop yields. Other insights at farm(ing) system level were clearer in Southern Ethiopia than in Central Luzon or in the Netherlands. For example, alleviating capital constraints was positively associated with intensification of maize-based farming systems around Hawassa and increases in oxen ownership (an indicator of farm power) was associated with extensification of wheat-based farming systems around Asella. In Central Luzon, farm and regional factors did not lead to different levels of intensification within the variation of rice farms investigated and the most striking effect was that direct-seeding (and thus slightly lower rice yields) was mostly adopted in larger farms, and used lower amounts of hired labour, compared to transplanting. In the Netherlands, the analysis of rotational effects on crop yields provided inconclusive results but confounding effects with e.g. rented land do not allow to conclude that these are not at stake in this farming system. This thesis broadens the discussion on yield gaps by moving from the technical aspects underlying their estimation towards the broader farm level opportunities and constraints undermining their closure. Overall, insights from contrasting case studies support conventional wisdom that intensification of agriculture needs to occur in the 'developing South', where yield gaps are large and resource use efficiency low, while a focus on improving sustainability based on sustainable intensification (or even extensification) is more appropriate in the 'developed North', where yield gaps are small and resource use efficiency high.

The yield gap and the production constraints in the rice-wheat (R-W) system in eastern Uttar Pradesh were studied. The yield gap II (difference between the yield obtained at nearest demonstration plot and actual yield obtained on farmers' fields in a particular region) has been found 45 percent and 38 percent in rice and wheat crops, respectively, in the irrigated rice-wheat system. The technological and socio-economic constraints have accounted for 54 percent and 46 percent of the yield gap, respectively, in the system. Soil-related constraints rank first, followed by weed-related constraints. Among the individual constraints, zinc deficiency rank first followed by nitrogen deficiency and incidence of Phalaris minor. The study has concluded that for the sustainability of the R-W system, priority should be accorded to bridge the existing yield gap through addressing the production constraints. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/bjar.v36i4.11749 Bangladesh J. Agril. Res. 36(4): 623-632, December 2011

The purpose of this study is Knowing the pattern of marketing channels , analyze and share the marketing margin, and to analyze the level of marketing efficiency pepper in the Mangkauk village. Based on field observations and analysis of data tabulation is known that selling price pepper producer farmers of 50.000 IDR/Kg and the consumer final purchase price of 61,000 IDR, with the margin 11,000 IDR, and the share of 81.967%, the pattern of 1's, producers farmers to sell directly to the end consumer, profit of 10.800 IDR/Kg. Marketing patterns 2nd, there is a longer marketing chain, namely: farmer producers, traders and retailers. The selling price of pepper at the producers farmers level, same with a pattern 1's is 50.000 IDR/Kg, the selling price of traders level is 61.000 USD/Kg, and the selling price retailers level is 72.000 IDR/Kg, so that the end consumer buy at a price of 72.000 IDR /Kg. the level producer farmes, marketing margin of 69,44%, traders of 11.000 IDR, and share of 69,44%, and retailers of 22.000 IDR, with share of 84,722%. Gains derived by 10.300 IDR/Kg traders with a share of 14.305%, while retailer profits earned 10.800 IDR/Kg with a share of 84.722%. Value of marketing efficiency in pattern 1 by 1.97% and the 2 patterns, traders is 1.14% and 0.27% retailers, based on the results of these calculations the chain or the most efficient marketing channel is the retailer level, efficient because the value lies between 0.1% - 50%.

A study was conducted in Shimoga district of Karnataka during 2012 - 2013 on post-harvest losses (PHL) in banana with the aims: 1) to identity the different marketing practices, 2) to estimate the physical and economic losses at farm, wholesale and retail levels and to identify the causes of losses, 3) to analyse the impact of post harvest loss on marketing cost, price spread and efficiency. Analytical tools such as ratios, percentages, price spread and modified marketing efficiency formula were used. The results indicated that there existed two major marketing channels viz., local market and distant market. The total PHL in the local market was 24.12% which consisted of field level loss (7.64%), transit loss (5.09%), ripening loss (4.95%) and retail level loss (6.44%). In the distant market, Bangalore, the total PHL worked out to 27.18%, the transit and ripening losses being higher (8.31% and 6.11%) than the local market. Harvesting injury, small and immature fruits, canker, cracks, bird attack at the field level; rotten fruits, fungus formation and black layered fruits at the wholesale and retail level were the major factors responsible for post harvest losses. The trend on the impact of PHL on marketing efficiency revealed that the producer's share in the consumer rupee decreased from 48.97% to 45.21%; marketing cost increased from Rs. 0.77 to Rs.3.39 kg−1; efficiency index deteriorated from 0.95 to 0.71 with the inclusion of PHL as an item of cost. The present study revealed that the total quantity of banana (cv. Robusta) lost in Shimoga district amounted to 39325 tonnes (24.12%) worth Rs.42.88 crores

Cucumber is an important vegetable due to its numerous health benefits. There are a number of empirical studies on the economics of production of the commodity, but there is insufficient information on marketing of the commodity. The study was therefore carried out to examine market performance, structure and constraints in cucumber marketing. Primary data was collected from 70 randomly selected actors in the supply chain (54 Retailers and 16 wholesalers). Data collected was analyzed using descriptive statistics, net marketing margin, efficiency and Gini coefficient. Findings revealed that most of the retailers (70.4%) and wholesalers (81.3%) were male. Most of the retailers were within 31–40 years whereas majority of the wholesalers were within 41–50 years and all the marketers had secondary level of education (47.2%). Cucumber marketing was profitable at the wholesale and retail level both at the peak and lean season of cucumber production. Retailers sell an average of 159.8 kg and 83.8 kg weekly in the peak and lean season. Whereas wholesalers sell an average of 1,000 kg and 870 kg weekly in the peak and lean season respectively. Net margin at retail level was higher in the lean season (68.8/kg) compared to the peak season (46.6/kg). Similarly, at wholesale level, net marketing margin at the lean season was 17.5/kg and was higher than 6.3/kg obtained during the peak season. Marketing efficiency was greater than one for the wholesalers and retailers in both seasons. Gini coefficient of retailer was 0.32 and 0.36 for the peak and lean season indicating that the market was competitive. There was inequality in the wholesale market as indicated by the gini coefficient result. The most important constraint to cucumber marketing was perishability of the produce and price fluctuation. The study recommends improved sensitization on adequate post-harvest handling practices and storage to reduce the levels and consequences of the perishable nature of the commodity.

Vegetables play an important role both in the regional and national economy of the agricultural sector. These crops are generally of short duration. The post-harvest losses in kharif vegetables due to insufficient storage, packaging, transportation, and handling technologies for perishable crops, such as vegetables, lead to significant wastage. The present study was undertaken to estimate these losses at various stages and price spread of selected vegetables in study area. The study was conducted in Palghar district of Maharashtra, involving 90 farmers, 6 commission agents, 9 wholesalers and 30 retailers, that the study involves multiple groups of stakeholders (farmers, commission agents, wholesalers, and retailers), with specific numbers from each group. The sampling technique used in this case likely purposive sampling. The important kharif vegetables were identified for the detailed analysis. In of case brinjal the total postharvest losses were 12.62 kg/q. out of which maximum postharvest losses of brinjal vegetables was observed to be highest (4.62 kg/q), at retailer level followed by (3.2 kg/q) at wholesaler level and (1.65 kg/q) at commission agent level. Similarly in case of okra, postharvest losses in kharif season was estimated to 13.52 kg /q, out of which the retailers level postharvest losses was highest at (5.12 kg/q), followed by (3.78 kg /q) at wholesaler level, (2.87 kg /q) at farmer level and (1.75 kg/q) at commission agent level .Whereas for cowpea total postharvest losses was workout to 12.73 kg/q out of which 4.12 kg /q postharvest losses was observed at retailer level, 3.65 kg /q losses at wholesaler level, 3.08 kg /q at farmer level and 1.88 kg /q postharvest losses at commission agent level. In study were identified channel-I (Producer-Commission agent-wholesaler-Retailer-Consumer), channel-II (Producer-Wholesaler-Retailer-Consumer) and channel-III(Producer-Consumer). For brinjal, the price spread was Rs. 2962.91 in Channel-I and Rs. 2634.72 in Channel II, with marketing efficiency of 1.01, 1.24, and 33.76 in Channels-I, II, and III, respectively. Channel-III exhibited the highest marketing efficiency, while Channel II had the lowest price spread. For okra, the price spread was Rs. 1939.70 in Channel-I and Rs. 1733.20 in Channel II, with marketing efficiency of 1.51, 1.85, and 28.84 in Channels-I, II, and III, respectively. Channel II demonstrated the highest marketing efficiency and lowest price spread. In the case of cowpea, the price spread was Rs. 4000 in Channel-I and Rs. 3260 in Channel-II, with marketing efficiency of 0.91, 1.76, and 29.76 in Channels -I, II, and III, respectively. Again, Channel III provided the highest efficiency, while Channel II had the lowest price spread. Channel-III emerged as the most efficient channel for all crops due to the direct sale to consumers, resulting in the highest marketing efficiency. Channel-II also showed better efficiency, especially in okra, while Channel-I consistently had the lowest efficiency across all crops.

Dragon fruit to be one of the flagship products Banyuwangi, but some patterns running inefficient marketing chains with an indication of some farmers receive farmer's share is less than 50% and most marketing agencies involved received benefits irrational. Least efficient marketing dragon fruit is determined by the length of the short marketing channels that lead further on the high and low cost marketing functions that must be removed. The objectives of this study were: 1) Tracing patterns dragon fruit marketing chains are awakened in Banyuwangi, and 2) to analyze margins, marketing efficiency, and elasticity of price transmission dragon fruit marketing. The type and method used in this research is descriptive and survey conducted in 2016 - 2017 some of the districts in Banyuwangi and Jember with sampling techniques through incidental and snowbolling sampling and data collection techniques in depth interviews and observations of the 32 respondents merchants, The results of this study concluded that: 1) Marketing of dragon fruits in the study area is formed of three patterns of chain marketing, where marketing agencies involved include, Small traders, merchant wholesalers, traders wholesalers, and retailers, each of which performs the function of different marketing, and 2) the results of the analysis of marketing margins dragon fruit showed that the pattern of the third chain is the most efficient marketing chain and patterns I chain most inefficient as indicated by the farmer's share of respectively 55.45% and 45%. The marketing price transmission elasticity Et dragon fruit (0.4) <1 or run inefficiently.

Assessing the functional relationship between the formal and informal waste systems: A case-study in Catalonia (Spain).

INTRODUCTION: Informal food marketing is predominantly practised in developing countries as it solves major social and economic challenges through the provision of employment and easily accessible food products at relatively inexpensive prices. However, such products often escape effective health and safety regulations which relatively characterize formal marketing, thus posing threats to public health. METHODS: we conducted a cross-sectional microbial assessment of randomly collected raw meats (n=224) sold at selected informal (n=112) and formal (n=112) meat markets in Ibadan, south-western Nigeria for Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp. using standard protocols. Isolates were evaluated for antibiogram patterns by Kirby-Bauer Assay and data analysed using descriptive statistics and logistic regression. RESULTS: overall, 75.5%, 65.2%, 61.6%, and 46.9% of the 224 samples were positive for S. aureus, L. monocytogenes, Salmonella spp, and E. coli, respectively. Significantly higher prevalences were obtained from the informal markets for S. aureus (OR=9.43; 95%CI:0.05-0.24), L. monocytogenes (OR=9.35; 95%CI: 0.06-0.21), Salmonella spp (OR=10.00; 95%CI: 0.05-0.19) and E. coli (OR=12.99; 95%CI: 0.04-0.15) than the formal markets. The pathogens exhibited total resistance against half of the 14 antibiotics studied, with the least resistance to ciprofloxacin and ofloxacin. CONCLUSION: the significantly higher microbial contamination in meats from informal markets and associated high antibiotic resistance level portends serious public health implications of informal meat marketing. Since informal food marketing also characterizes other developing sub-Saharan African countries, synergy among local and international stakeholders to step up health and safety policies towards regulating activities at informal food markets is urgently required.

In 1992 the South African meat industry was deregulated and this led to the formation of the new Marketing of Agricultural Products Act, Act no. 47 of 1996. The Act made provisions for producers to sell animals to customers of their own choice at mutually agreed prices. Thus, producers in the informal sector took advantage of the free marketing system. The result was a substantial increase in the number of animals slaughtered in the informal sector. Unfortunately the requirements for animal identification are not always observed in this sector. Challenges faced by communal farmers which include the multipurpose roles of livestock, lack of slaughter facilities within reasonable distance and lack of access to market information make them less willing to sell their animals through the formal market. The formal market is characterised by meat inspection and carcass classification which scare away the communal farmers for fear of income loss through animal condemnation. The informal sector might not recognise the importance of formal carcass classification. There is need to direct research and development efforts to address marketing constraints faced by communal farmers, and to promote formal marketing of livestock for meat quality assurance and a fair return to the farmers. This review seeks to assess the relevance of formal classification of red meat carcasses to the informal sector, make recommendations on ways to ameliorate the undesirable effect of the classification system on the informal sector, and identify possible areas which need further research to develop the classification system in South Africa.Keywords: Communal farmers, marketing system, meat industry

Although liberalization of the cocoa sector has increased internal competition within the marketing chain it has also led to the emergence of informal market actors within the chain. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to analyse how the cocoa marketing chain operates by measuring and comparing the marketing margins of the formal and informal actors. Qualitative data were used to establish the structure of the marketing chain and quantitative data to estimate the marketing margins. A total sampling size of 76 cocoa market actors was obtained by using a multi-stage sampling technique: 15 for qualitative data and 61 for quantitative data. Descriptive analysis was used to map the marketing chain and economic analysis to compute the costs and margins for both informal and formal market intermediaries from the Centre and South-West regions in Cameroon. The results indicated three market intermediaries (one informal and two formal) and four marketing channels by which cocoa moves from the farmers to the exporters. The calculation of marketing costs indicated that informal actors incurred the highest costs in both regions. The results regarding the marketing margins were twofold: informal actors obtain low net marketing margins when they do not use illicit strategies, but high net marketing margins when illicit strategies are used. Given the significant role of informal actors, we suggest that their actions should be integrated in a suitable manner into those of formal actors to contribute to a better performance of the marketing chain and to the sustainability of the cocoa sector.