Mantle plume – volcanic arc interaction: consequences for magmatism, metallogeny, and cratonization in the Abitibi and Wawa subprovinces, CanadaThis article is one of a series of papers published in this Special Issue on the theme Lithoprobe — parameters, processes, and the evolution of a continent.

Geochemical systematics of 2.7 Ga Kinojevis Group (Abitibi), and Manitouwadge and Winston Lake (Wawa) Fe-rich basalt–rhyolite associations: Backarc rift oceanic crust?

The Timmins-Porcupine gold camp, with a total production of more than 2,125 tonnes (75 Moz) Au to date, represents the largest Archean orogenic greenstone-hosted gold camp worldwide in terms of total gold production. The gold deposits of the camp are distributed over 50 km of strike length along the Destor-Porcupine fault zone, including the giant Hollinger-McIntyre and Dome deposits. These two deposits are archetype examples of large Archean orogenic gold systems. The Dome mine, where the ore is centered on a folded unconformity between Tisdale volcanic rocks and Timiskaming sedimentary deposits, also illustrates the spatial relationship between large gold deposits and a regional unconformity. Gold-associated hydrothermal activity in the camp spanned a long period of time, as illustrated by early stage, barren to low-grade ankerite veins formed between ca. 2690 and 2674 Ma, i.e., prior to or very early in the development of the regional unconformity and sedimentation of the Timiskaming assemblage. Such early carbonatization may represent a key hydrothermal event in the formation of large orogenic gold deposits and illustrates the protracted nature of the large-scale CO2-rich metasomatism occurring before and during gold deposition. The bulk of the gold is, however, younger than the Three Nations Formation in the upper part of the Timiskaming assemblage (i.e., ≤2669 ± 1 Ma) and consists mainly of syn-main regional shortening deformation (D3) networks of steeply to moderately dipping fault-fill quartz-carbonate ± tourmaline ± pyrite veins and associated extensional, shallow to moderately dipping arrays of sheeted and sigmoidal veins hosted in highly carbonatized and sericitized rocks. Formation of the gold deposits of the Timmins-Porcupine camp can be related to several key factors. The Destor-Porcupine fault zone represents a first-order control on the location of the camp as this major fault zone allowed large scale CO2-rich hydrothermal fluid upflow. The fault zone also controlled the location of the Timiskaming clastic basin, which is thought to have been developed as a result of early-stage synorogenic extensional faulting. Several of the orogenic gold deposits of the camp are spatially associated with the regional unconformity separating folded submarine volcanic rocks of the Tisdale assemblage form the syn-orogenic sedimentary deposits of the Timiskaming assemblage. The current level of erosion is deep enough to expose the unconformity and to maximize the chance of discovery of the orogenic deposits or their footprint, but allowed for preservation of at least part of the gold deposits that are mainly hosted in the highly reactive Fe-rich Tisdale basalt. Additional key factors include the presence of komatiitic and/or basaltic komatiite flows, of competent intrusions that predate the main phase of shortening of the belt and the occurrence of bends in the trace of the Destor-Porcupine fault zone that may have facilitated focus to ore-forming fluid upflow. Furthermore, the camp is characterized by complex structural and rheological discontinuities, competency contrasts, and early stage folds with associated fracture and fault networks that provided highly favorable ground preparation conditions. The exceptional gold enrichment of the camp requires that the hydrothermal fluids originated from favorable source rocks, lending support to the concept of provinciality, which may best explain the exceptional gold fertility of the southern Abitibi greenstone belt.

<p>The impingement of a hot buoyant mantle plume onto the lithosphere can result in either breaking of the lithosphere, which might results in subduction initiation or in under-plating of the plume beneath the lithosphere. Key natural examples of the former and latter are formation of subduction along the southern margin of Caribbean and northwestern South America in the late Cretaceous as well as the hotspot chains of Hawaii, respectively. In previous studies the interaction of a buoyant mantle plume with lithosphere was investigated either for the case of stationary lithosphere or for moving lithosphere but ignoring the effect of magmatic weakening of the lithosphere above the plume head. In this study we aim to investigate the response of a moving lithosphere to the arrival of a stationary mantle plume including the effect of magmatic lithospheric weakening. To do so we use 3d thermo-mechanical models employing the finite difference code I3ELVIS. Our setup consists of an oceanic lithosphere, mantle plume and asthenosphere till depth of 400 km. The moving plate is simulated by imposing a kinematic boundary condition on the lithospheric part of the side boundaries. The mantle plume in our models has a mushroom shape. The experiments differ in the age of the lithosphere, rate of the plate motion and size of the mantle plume. For different combinations of these parameters model results show either (1) breaking of the lithosphere and initiation of subduction above the plume head or (2) asymmetric spreading of the plume material below the lithosphere without large deformation of the lithosphere. We find that the critical radius of the plume that breaks the lithosphere and initiates subduction depends on plume buoyancy and the lithospheric age, but not on the plate speed. In general, the modeling results for the moving plate are similar to the results for a stationary plate, but the shapes of the region of the deformed lithosphere differ.</p>

The gold resources of Mauritania presently include two important deposits and a series of poorly studied prospects. The Tasiast belt of deposits, which came into production in 2007, is located in the southwestern corner of the Rgueïbat Shield and defines a world-class Paleoproterozoic(?) orogenic gold ore system. The producing Guelb Moghrein deposit occurs along a shear zone in Middle Archean rocks at the bend in the Northern Mauritanides and is most commonly stated to be an iron oxide-copper-gold (IOCG) type of deposit, although it also has some important characteristics of orogenic gold and skarn deposits. Both major deposits are surrounded by numerous prospects that show similar mineralization styles. The Guelb Moghrein deposit, and IOCG deposit types in general are discussed in greater detail in a companion report by Fernette (2015). In addition, many small gold prospects, which are probably orogenic gold occurrences and are suggested to be early Paleozoic in age, occur along the length of Southern Mauritanides. Existing data indicate the gold deposits and prospects in Mauritania have a sulfide assemblage most commonly dominated by pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite, and have ore-related fluids with apparently high salinities. A preliminary evaluation of these gold data can be used to develop broad, firstorder tracts defining favorable and permissive areas for gold resources; detailed metamorphic and structural maps are required for more detailed future tract definition. Such a first-order assessment can, nonetheless, broadly identify four tracts of gold resource potential. Three of these are favorable for discovery of new orogenic gold deposits. One tract, although not favorable, is nevertheless permissive for discovery of epithermal gold deposits. Tract 1 is defined by favorable medium metamorphic grade greenstone belts within vast areas of unfavorable high metamorphic grade, Mesoarchean and Paleoproterozoic granite-gneiss basement of the Rgueïbat Shield. Faults >200 km in length following the general strike of the greenstone belts; lineament intersections with both exposed and buried parts of greenstone belts within 500 m of the surface, as defined by aeromagnetic data (Finn and Anderson, 2015); and areas of banded iron formation (BIF) in the belts are particularly favorable areas for hosting gold resources in orogenic gold deposits within and along the margins of the greenstone belts. Tracts 2 and 3, also for orogenic gold, reflect the favorable Proterozoic-Cambrian metamorphic rocks of the Northern and Southern Mauritanides, with >200-km-long faults following the general strike of the range, and areas underlain by ultramafic and BIF rocks being particularly favorable. Outcrops of Triassic-Jurassic igneous rocks along the margins of the Taoudeni Basin define tract 4, which is permissive for epithermal gold deposits. Although extensive data are lacking for the area, carbonate units along the northern side of the Taoudeni Basin could be considered permissive host rocks for Carlin-type mineralization, but the deep-water carbonate lithologies are typically not favorable for such.

China produces about 450 t Au per year and has government stated in-ground reserves of approximately 12,000 t Au. Orogenic gold, or gold deposits in metamorphic rocks, and associated placer deposits compose about 65 to 75% of this endowment, with lodes existing as structurally hosted vein and/or disseminated orebodies. The abundance of orogenic gold deposits reflects Paleozoic to Triassic closure of Paleo-Tethyan ocean basins between Precambrian blocks derived from Rodinia and Gondwana as well as late Mesozoic-Cenozoic circum-Pacific events and Cenozoic Himalayan orogeny. The deposits range in age from middle Paleozoic to Pleistocene. The Jiaodong Peninsula contains about one-third of China’s overall endowment, and large resources also characterize East Qinling, West Qinling, and the Youjiang basin. Although gold ores in Jiaodong postdate formation and metamorphism of Precambrian host rocks by billions of years, they are nevertheless classified here as orogenic gold ores rather than as a unique Jiaodong-type or decratonic-type of gold deposit. Similarly, although many workers classify the gold lodes in the Youjiang basin and much of West Qinling as Carlin-type gold, they show significant differences from gold ores in Nevada, United States, and are better defined as epizonal orogenic gold deposits. Although there are widespread exposures of Precambrian rocks in China, there are no significant Precambrian gold deposits. If large ancient orogenic gold deposits formed in Archean and Paleoproterozoic rocks, then they have been eroded, because these deep crustal rocks that are now exposed in China’s cratonic blocks have been uplifted from levels too deep for orogenic gold formation. The oldest large gold deposits in China are perhaps those of the Qilian Shan that were formed in association with Silurian tectonism along the present-day southwestern margin of the North China block. Closure of ocean basins in the outer parts of the Central Asian orogenic belt led to late Carboniferous to Middle Triassic orogenic gold formation in the Tian Shan, Altay Shan, Beishan, and northwestern North China block. Deformation associated with amalgamation of the North China block, northern Tibet terranes, South China block, and Indochina, as well as initial Paleo-Pacific subduction, can be related to Late Triassic orogenic gold formation in West Qinling, East Kunlun, Youjiang basin, West Jiangnan (Xuefengshan belt), Hainan Island, and Yunkaidashan gold provinces. In the middle Mesozoic, continued subduction along the Paleo-Pacific margin was associated with gold ores forming in East and Central Jiangnan, whereas early to middle Mesozoic deformation along the northern North China block formed important orogenic lodes in Precambrian basement (e.g., Jiapigou, Zhangjiakou, and Yanshan districts). Continued Yanshanian orogeny in the eastern half of the North China block led to extensive orogenic gold formation during the main period of decratonization and regional extension at ca. 135 to 120 Ma (e.g., Jiaodong, Liaodong, Chifeng-Chaoyang, Zhangbaling, Taihangshan, and East Qinling). At the same time, strike-slip events in central Transbaikal were associated with orogenic gold formation in both Russia and adjacent northeastern China and likely are the source for China’s most productive gold placers in the upper Heilongjiang basin. China’s youngest orogenic gold deposits formed in the Ailaoshan, Lanping basin, Ganzi-Litang belt, Daduhe district, and areas south of the Lhasa terrane in Tibet during the middle Cenozoic, as well as in the northern half of the Central Range of Taiwan during the Pliocene-Pleistocene.

Most of the known large gold deposits in Iran are located along the Sanandaj–Sirjan Zone, western Iran, which hosts a wide range of gold deposit types. Gold deposits in the belt, hosted in upper Paleozoic to upper Mesozoic volcano‐sedimentary sequences of lower greenschist to lower amphibolite metamorphic grade, appear to represent mainly orogenic and intrusion‐related gold deposit types. The largest resource occurs at Muteh, with smaller deposits/occurrences at Zartorosht, Qolqoleh, Kervian, Qabaqloujeh, Kharapeh, and Astaneh. Although a major part of the gold deposits in the Sanandaj–Sirjan Zone are related to metamorphic devolatilization, some deposits including Muteh and Astaneh are related to short‐lived disruptions in an extensional tectonic regime and are associated with magma generation and emplacement. The age of gold ore formation in the orogenic gold deposits is Late Cretaceous to Tertiary, reflecting peak‐metamorphism during regional Cretaceous–Paleocene convergence and compression. The Oligocene to Pliocene age of most intrusion‐related gold systems is consistent with the young structural setting of the gold ore bodies; these deposits are sequestered along normal faults, correlated with Middle to Late Tertiary extensional tectonic events. This relationship is comparable to the magmatic‐metallogenetic evolution of the Urumieh‐Dokhtar magmatic arc, where the number of different types of gold‐copper deposits and the magnitude of the larger ones followed development of a magmatic arc. The appropriate explanation may be related to two different stages of gold mineralization consisting of a first compressional phase during the Late Cretaceous to Early‐Middle Tertiary, which is related to orogenic gold mineralization in the Qolqoleh, Kervian, Qabaqloujeh, Kharapeh, and Zartorosht deposits, and the extensional phase during the Eocene to Pliocene that is recognized by young intrusion‐related gold mineralization in the Muteh and Astaneh deposits.

Early Cretaceous orogenic gold deposits in eastern Asia are globally unique in that large Phanerozoic lode gold deposits occur in Archean-Paleoproterozoic cratons. In the northern Pacific region, ca. 125 Ma orogenic gold deposits in the North China, Yangzte, and Siberian craton margins, as well as in young terranes in California, may ultimately relate to the giant Cretaceous mantle plume in the southern Pacific basin and the relatively rapid tectonic consequences along both continental margins from resulting Pacific plate reconfigurations. In eastern Asia, such consequences include reactivation of and fluid flow along major fault systems, with fluid focusing into simultaneously forming, isolated core complexes of uncertain genesis. Deposition of gold ores in previously devolatilized high-grade Precambrian metamorphic rocks requires an exotic source of ore fluid, most likely subducted Mesozoic oceanic crust and/or overlying sediment. An implication is that Phanerozoic metamorphic core complexes in other destabilized craton margins could host large gold resources.

Orogenic gold and geologic time: a global synthesis

Pyrite Rb-Sr geochronology, LA-ICP-MS trace element and telluride mineralogy constraints on the genesis of the Shuangqishan gold deposit, Fujian, China

A compilation of economically viable gold concentrations containing ≥10 Moz in the North and South American Cordillera reveals the existence of 22 discrete belts in addition to five major isolated deposits, most formed over the last 150 m.y. The gold concentrations are attributed to eight widely recognized deposit types, of which porphyry, sediment-hosted, and high-sulfidation epithermal are economically the most important. Individual gold belts are typically several tens to hundreds of kilometers long, dominated by single deposit types, and metallogenically active for relatively brief periods (<5–20 m.y.). Many of the gold belts and major isolated deposits were generated under extensional or transtensional tectonic conditions in either arc or back-arc settings. Nevertheless, the two main high-sulfidation epithermal gold belts were generated in thickening or already-thickened crust during low-angle subduction. Eight other gold belts or districts also accompanied compression or transpression, with two of them, the main orogenic gold belts, occupying fore-arc sites. There is a strong suggestion that the preeminent Cordilleran gold concentrations formed either during or immediately following prolonged contraction. The major gold deposits and belts occur along the craton edge as well as in adjoining accreted terranes, but almost all are of postaccretionary timing. Many of the gold belts and isolated deposits were localized by crustal-scale faults or lineaments, which may be either parallel or transverse to the Cordilleran margin. The gold concentrations accumulated during active subduction, commonly in close spatial and temporal association with intermediate to felsic, medium- to high-K calc-alkaline igneous rocks. By contrast, the low-sulfidation epithermal gold deposits accompany bimodal volcanic pulses of calc-alkaline, tholeiitic, or alkaline affinity. However, a gold-alkaline rock association is uncommon. A genetic link between gold mineralization and coeval magmatism is widely accepted for most of the deposit types, the exceptions being the sediment-hosted and orogenic gold deposits. Notwithstanding the small cumulative extent of the gold concentrations relative to the entire Cordilleran margin, there is a marked tendency for two or more belts or isolated deposits of different ages and genetic types to occur in close proximity within relatively restricted arc (including fore- and back-arc) segments. In the case of the western United States, for example, six belts and four isolated major deposits make up a particularly prominent cluster. If fortuity is discounted, this clustering or pairing of gold concentrations must imply a predisposition of certain arc segments to gold mineralization. An analogous situation is evident for other metals, particularly copper and tin. The reason for the recurrent generation of major deposits and belts dominated by one or more metals remains uncertain, although heterogeneously distributed metal preconcentrations, favorable redox conditions, or other parameters somewhere above the subducted slab, between the mantle wedge and upper crust, are widely contemplated possibilities. Elucidation of the reason(s) for this metallogenic inheritance at the scale of limited arc segments poses an important and challenging series of research questions as well as being critical to the planning of potentially successful greenfield exploration programs.

Geochemie und Geochronologie des Erongo-Komplexes, Namibia

On the basis of predecessors study, this paper found that outbreak frequency of mantle plume is increase, while scale is reduce. The mantle plume provides ore-forming minerals to orogenic gold deposits, as well as affords force to supercontinent formation and decomposition, for the more controls the global tectonic. Supercontinent is the movement of upper crust that could be cause by combine factors of cold and heat mantle plume. Supercontinent supply suitable tectonic environment for orogenic gold deposits. Further, we discuss the relationship between mantle plume, supercontinent and orogenic gold deposit on space and time. With the evolution of the earth, especially the energy loss, the frequency of orogenic gold mineralization is increasing, while the scale is reducing.

Upper mantle processes beneath the 2.7 Ga Abitibi belt, Canada: a trace element perspective

Abstract: A spectrum of intrusion‐related vein gold deposits is recognized. Representative examples are described of the following geochemical associations: Au‐Fe oxide–Cu, Au–Cu–Mo–Zn, Au–As–Pb–Zn–Cu, Au–Te–Pb–Zn–Cu and Au–As–Bi–Sb. The associated intrusions range from small outcropping stocks to complex batholiths.The different vein associations are believed to reflect the compositions of related intrusions, which themselves characterize distinct tectonic settings. The Au‐Fe oxide–Cu and Au–Cu–Mo–Zn associations belong to two broad groups of deposits, Fe oxide–Cu–Au and porphyry Cu–Au, both of which are related to highly oxidized calc‐alkaline intrusions emplaced in sub–duction–related arcs. The Au–As–Pb–Zn–Cu association seems to be linked to somewhat less oxidized intrusions emplaced in a similar setting. The Au–Te–Pb–Zn–Cu association, which possesses well‐known epithermal counterparts, is also found with highly oxidized intrusions, but of alkaline composition and back‐arc location. In contrast, the Au–As–Bi–Sb association, part of a newly recognized class of intrusion‐hosted Au–Bi–W–As deposits, is related to relatively reduced intrusions, spanning the boundary between the magnetite– and ilmenite–series. Such intrusions, which may host major bulk‐mineable gold deposits, were emplaced along the landward sides of arcs, possibly during lulls in subduction, as well as in continental collision settings. Therefore, a variety of geological environments is prospective for vein and, by extrapolation, other styles of gold mineralization, not all of them fully appreciated in the past.Several features of vein gold deposits, including imprecise relationships to individual intrusive phases, poorly developed mineral and metal zoning, apparent time gaps between intrusion and mineralization and presence of low–salinity, CO2–rich fluid inclusions, are commonly taken to indicate a non‐igneous origin and to be more typical of orogenic (mesothermal) gold deposits generated during accretionary tectonic events. However, several or all of these features apply equally to some intrusion– related vein gold deposits and, therefore, do not constitute distinguishing criteria. The currently popular assignment of most gold‐rich veins to the orogenic category requires caution, because of the geological convergence that they show with some intrusion‐related deposits. A proper distinction between intrusion‐related and orogenic gold deposits is crucial for exploration planning.

Geology and fluid characteristics of the Ulu Sokor gold deposit, Kelantan, Malaysia: Implications for ore genesis and classification of the deposit