Management of Bleeding Complications in Redo Cardiac Operations

Abstract

Bleeding remains a complication of certain complex surgical procedures, particularly those cardiac operations associated with long bypass times and profound hypothermia. Clinical and novel experimental strategies to reduce bleeding and the need for blood and blood-product transfusions are the focus of this review. Preoperative assessment of the patient will identify drug-induced, acquired, or inherited coagulation defects that may contribute to this problem. The main attention is directed to the perioperative period, and broad areas discussed include the preoperative use of erythropoietin to increase red blood cell mass, autologous donation either preoperatively or before bypass, autotransfusion/hemofiltration, and acceptance of relative anemia both during the operation and into the postoperative period. A further, often overlooked, management strategy in treating major coagulopathies is the consideration of the cost and half-lives of the coagulation factors in individual blood components. Prevention of bleeding has become possible both by manipulation of the control of coagulation and inflammatory processes and by the introduction of pharmacologic agents such as aprotinin. Aprotinin is widely used and has proven efficacy in the management of excess bleeding. It is a serine protease inhibitor and has several possible mechanisms of action, including inhibition of the plasma enzyme systems activated by contact with the foreign surface of the bypass circuit and preservation of platelet function. Safety issues include the possibility of hypersensitivity and anaphylactic reaction on a second exposure. Concerns that aprotinin may induce a prothrombotic or coagulant state have no basis in theory or any good evidence in the current literature. A recent study specifically sought to identify the presence of disseminated microvascular platelet-fibrin thrombi present at autopsy in patients who had received aprotinin therapy. The study concluded that diffuse platelet-fibrin thrombi were not a direct complication of aprotinin therapy. Finally, modern molecular biology has led to the recent development of an inhibitor for factor IXa that competitively replaced IXa in the intrinsic complex and blocked the conversion of factor X to factor Xa. This compound is under investigation in animal studies. These have so far shown efficacy in reducing blood loss after bypass in comparison with standard heparin anticoagulation.