Malaysian Muslim Youths’ Beliefs and Expectations of Reward and Punishment in the Afterlife: What Traits Predict Greater Prosocial Behavior?

In recent years, many companies have established virtual customer environments (VCEs) that offer facilities ranging from online discussion forums to virtual product design centers to partner with their customers in product development and product support activities. In this study, we focus on one form of VCE, online customer forums, and propose that the relevance of four distinct theoretical perspectives—social capital theory, social exchange theory, involvement, and social identity theory—to explaining customer participation will be contingent on the nature of the customer contribution context, that is, whether the contributions are to the customer community (through product support) or to the company (through product ideation). We propose a model suggesting that customers' prosocial behavior and expectations of private rewards will shape contributions to the community, whereas their perceived innovation partnership with the company and expectations of private rewards will shape a contribution to the company. We also contend that these effects will be moderated by customers' identification with the community and with the company. Our empirical findings offer support for the model and indicate that online customer forums (and more broadly VCEs) should be tailored to fit the nature of customer contribution sought. Implications for research and practice in customer co-innovation, online peer-to-peer communities, and customer relationship management are discussed.

Little previous research has examined the in-play decision-making processes of multiplayer video game players related to both prosocial (helping others in general) and altruistic (helping with no expectation of reward) actions. The study used an established decision-making model, the Theory of Planned Behavior, and assessed additional constructs of prototypical images (favorability and similarity to a typical gamer who helps) and general levels of empathy. Participants completed two self-report online surveys. At Time 1, participants (N = 387) completed measures assessing the predictors of prosocial and altruistic intentions. The model accounted for 53 percent of variance in prosocial players' prosocial intentions and 60 percent of variance in players' altruistic intentions. Participants' reported prosocial and altruistic gameplay behaviors were assessed 4 weeks later (n = 107), with intention to help significantly predicting both types of helping behaviors. Given established links between helping and positive health and well-being outcomes, these findings are relevant to both game developers, as well as stakeholders concerned with the impact of video games on players.

The impact of moral beliefs on individuals' moral judgments, particularly within the framework of contrasting cultural values such as collectivism and individualism, continues to be a subject of interest. This research delves into whether individuals with distinct values display differences in moral beliefs, with a specific focus on selflessness. Through experiment 1 and 2, we scrutinize the moral judgments of individuals with diverse values concerning pro-social behaviors driven by selflessness and in-group favoritism. Experiment 3 investigates the underlying mechanisms by examining reward expectations. The findings from experiments 1 and 2 indicate that collectivists exhibit significantly higher moral judgment levels for selfless pro-social behaviors compared to individualists, highlighting a disparity in moral beliefs between the two value systems. Experimental 2 also found that collectivists' moral judgments rose and fell as rescuers' selflessness increased or decreased. However, individualist moral judgment did not change significantly with behavioral selflessness. The results reveal that collectivists hold higher reward expectations for selfless behavior, which contributes to their heightened moral judgment of selfless behavior. While it may be assumed that collectivists' moral beliefs would be dominated by in-group preferences, aligning with the conceptual in-group preference of collectivism, this study unexpectedly found evidence of collectivists' pursuit of selflessness in their moral beliefs. These findings offer initial evidence of distinct patterns of moral beliefs associated with collectivism and individualism, shedding light on potential reasons that lead collectivists to possess stronger moral beliefs about selflessness.

Narcissistic youth use social media to engage in a variety of self-promotional behaviors, which have either antisocial or prosocial characteristics. Differing views exist to explain the processes underlying narcissistic self-promotion, either characterizing these actions as intentional, or as impulsive. This study compared intentional attention-seeking and impulsivity as potential mediators of relations between narcissism and both aggressive (i.e., cyberbullying) and prosocial online behavior, and examined whether youth’s loneliness might strengthen these associations. Among Chinese early adolescents (N = 213, Mage = 13.26), narcissism positively predicted youth-reported cyberbullying offending and online prosocial behavior. Loneliness moderated the link between narcissism and attention-seeking, but not impulsivity. Among adolescents higher in loneliness, narcissism indirectly predicted cyberbullying and online prosocial behaviors via attention-seeking. These results highlight narcissism, loneliness, and their interplay as potential predictors of youth’s social media behaviors. Links with attention-seeking, in particular, suggest that educators and practitioners might target youth’s conscious expectations for social rewards when counseling narcissistic adolescents about self-promotional social media use.

Urban 'angst', incivility, crime, lack of empathy and reduced social support counterbalance the economic benefits of living in cities. The long-term psychological and social effects of these conditions are well-known. One notable consequence of living in cities is a decrease in helping behavior, which is closely linked to the trait of altruism where help is given without expectation of return.As cities become increasingly complex, altruism is threatened by rising levels of materialism and competition for scarce resources. At the same time, it is more necessary than ever to foster this trait amongst city-dwellers, for protecting individual integrity, identity and mental health from disorganization in the new urban order. The phenomenon of urbanization is irreversible. However, its negative consequences can be moderated by enhancing the livability of cities. Urban green cover plays a vital role in achieving this goal.AltruismHelping or pro-social behavior is generally defined as any behavior carried out with the intention of benefiting another person. However, the helper either consciously or unconsciously engages in the prosocial behavior because s/he will be rewarded. The key point that differentiates helping from altruism is that helping may involve a selfish motivation. There is no such motive present in altruism.Altruism is helping behavior (without expectation of extrinsic rewards and sometimes involving personal risk or sacrifice) that benefits individuals or society. is a motivational state with the ultimate goal of increasing another's (Batson, 1991).Conditionsfostering AltruismThe proposal that empathie concern produces altruistic motivation has been called the empathy-altruism hypothesis (Batson, 1991). Empathy is a term used for the processes employed by an individual to understand the subjective experience of others. Empathie concern has been found to direct attention to the long-term welfare of those in need, producing more sensitive care (Sibicky, Schroeder, & Dovidio, 1995). Empathy-induced altruism has also been found to improve attitudes toward stigmatized groups, including racial minorities, people with AIDS, the homeless, even convicted murderers and drug dealers.Nelson and Dynes (1976) explored the impact of religious devotion and attendance at religious services on a variety of helping behaviors. The researchers found that devotionalism, church attendance and level of religious commitment were positively correlated with levels of helping behavior, both in routine and emergency situations.Social skills training that improves people's empathising abilities (Stepien & Baemstein, 2006) also tends to improve their ability to be altruistic. Altruism can be fostered, especially among the young (Sutton et al., 2006). Essentially, nurturing people is the best way of nurturing their altruism (Knafo & Plomin, 2006). Conversely, people who are not nurtured tend to become both physically and emotionally insensitive to the needs of others (DeWall & Baumeister, 2006).Physical conditions of the environment effect on altruismDefensible space (DS) theory suggests that the architectural features and physical layout of residential buildings substantially influence patterns of informal contact among neighbors and informal surveillance. Contact among neighbors and informal surveillance are, in turn, known to be linked to strength of community and levels of crime (Taylor, 1988). Although defensible space theory says very little about vegetation per se, the theory clearly has implications for natural as well as built features of residential outdoor spaces.Green spaces in cities may strengthen community interaction, thereby reinforcing social ties which lead to higher incidence of helping behaviour. In addition, the restorative benefits of natural vegetation (e.g. Frerichs, 2004) would reduce attention fatigue. Residents would be able to more quickly perceive incidences requiring help and make more accurate appraisals of the urgency of the situation. …

Literature from the cognitive and cultural evolutionary sciences of religion indicates that afterlife reward and punishment beliefs increase prosociality. Although Muslims are among the strongest adherents in afterlife reward and punishment belief, there is evidence that there are low levels of prosociality in these societies. This study explores this paradox. Because previous studies have mostly relied on variable-centered approaches to analysis, it is difficult to understand how different afterlife beliefs and expectations together affect Muslims. Using a person-centered approach, the current study employed Latent Profile Analysis to understand how Islamic afterlife reward and punishment beliefs and expectations interact with each other, and what profiles result from this interaction. The study further explored the relationships between the resulting profiles with religiosity, prosociality (integrity, rule breaking ability, self-control), death attitude (death anxiety, and acceptance), and future orientation. The study used data collected from Jordanian (n= 605) university students. The results indicate that profiles with high levels of afterlife reward and punishment beliefs and afterlife hope expectations have a positive association with religiosity, prosociality and death attitude in both samples, while profiles with high levels of afterlife fear expectation, temporary afterlife punishment expectation, and compulsory temporary afterlife punishment belief have a negative association with religiosity, prosociality and death attitude. The profiles that show the best performance constitute only 23 percent of the Jordanian sample. The study results confirm the existence of a unique phenomenon in which supernatural punishment beliefs have a negative effect on prosocial behavior resulting from belief in temporary punishment in the afterlife.

Theories that reject the existence of altruism presume that emotional benefits serve as ulterior motives for doing good deeds. These theories argue that even in the absence of material and reputational benefits, individuals reap utility from the feelings associated with doing good. In response to this normative view of altruism, this article examines the descriptive question of whether laypeople penalize emotional prosocial actors. Six studies find that emotion serves as a positive signal of moral character, despite the intrapsychic benefits associated with it. This is true when emotion motivates prosocial behavior (Studies 1, 2, 3, and 5) and when emotion is a positive outcome of prosocial behavior (i.e., “warm glow”; Studies 4, 5, and 6). Emotional actors are considered to be moral because people believe emotion provides an honest and direct signal that the actor feels a genuine concern for others. Consequently, prosocial actors who are motivated by the expectation of emotional rewards are judged differently than prosocial actors who are motivated by other benefits, such as reputational or material rewards (Study 6). These results suggest that laypeople do not view altruism as incompatible with all benefits to the self.

Theories that reject the existence of altruism presume that emotional benefits serve as ulterior motives for doing good deeds. These theories argue that even in the absence of material and reputational benefits, individuals reap utility from the feelings associated with doing good. In response to this normative view of altruism, this article examines the descriptive question of whether laypeople penalize emotional prosocial actors. Six studies find that emotion serves as a positive signal of moral character, despite the intrapsychic benefits associated with it. This is true when emotion motivates prosocial behavior (Studies 1, 2, 3, and 5) and when emotion is a positive outcome of prosocial behavior (i.e., "warm glow"; Studies 4, 5, and 6). Emotional actors are considered to be moral because people believe emotion provides an honest and direct signal that the actor feels a genuine concern for others. Consequently, prosocial actors who are motivated by the expectation of emotional rewards are judged differently than prosocial actors who are motivated by other benefits, such as reputational or material rewards (Study 6). These results suggest that laypeople do not view altruism as incompatible with all benefits to the self.

The purpose of this chapter is to review factors related to behavior in children that is egoistic, selfish, and lacking in prosocial elements. There is, however, little research in which the primary intent of the investigator was to study such behavior; most researchers concerned with children’s negative moral behavior have focused upon delinquency, aggression, dishonesty, and lack of resistance to temptation, but not upon selfishness and related behaviors (Hoffman, 1970; Parke & Slaby, 1983). Nonetheless, there is considerable information available concerning our topic—information embedded in the large and fast-growing literature concerning the development and maintenance of prosocial behavior (i.e., voluntary behavior intended to benefit another), including altruistic behavior (i.e., voluntary behavior intended to benefit another which is not motivated by the expectation of external reward; Eisenberg, 1982; Staub, 1978).

The people in this situation were faced with an option to help someone in distress, and they did not choose to offer aid. This is a dramatic example of a situation that people face every day. An encounter with a beggar on the street, a request to give blood, or a call from a friend who is lonely or depressed—each is a situation in which someone can do something to benefit someone else. Such activity may be termed positive social action. Such acts as donating money or goods to charity, cooperating with others in carrying out a project, and doing favors for a person in need are typical examples of positive social action. Behavior of this kind may be contrasted with antisocial action, such behavior as aggression, destruction, and selfishness. Some theorists use the term prosocial behavior to stress the contrast with antisocial behavior. Other theorists prefer to use the term altruism, to emphasize the element of selflessness that exists in many helping situations. Altruism is action that benefits other people and is carried out with no expectation of external reward. Whatever words are used and with whatever emphasis, however, such action is worth investigating because it is deemed morally admirable and also contributes to the survival of society (Poplawski, 1985). Most people admire the individual who makes sacrifices so that others may benefit, and probably everyone agrees that society would be better off if everyone were less self-centered.

The Spiritual environment is highly influenced by fear of divine punishment that shapes the behavior of helping. The qualitative research involved the exploration of the fear based helping behavior through the context of Divine retribution altruism in middle age women. With semi-structured interview method, twelve participants were able to narrate their experiences, motivations, emotions, and coping mechanisms with regard to this helping behavior. The Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis was used to analyze data, which allowed obtaining a detailed idea about individual experiences. There were five superordinate themes arises, including fear-motivation, emotional, intention reflection, coping strategy and social cultural factors. The results provided that the helping behavior is highly guided by fear of Divine punishment and expectation of spiritual reward, and that the participants have emotional tension, consisting of satisfaction, anxiety, and guilt. Some of the coping mechanisms employed by the participants to deal with these emotions include prayer, reflection, and rationalization. The research indicates that there is a great need of programs and guidance that can help in sustaining psychological wellbeing and encouraging the spiritually and ethically motivated prosocial behavior.

The psychological and social effects of the doctrine of purgatory (temporary afterlife punishment) have not received sufficient attention from sociologists. Temporary afterlife punishment (TAP) is any kind of ‘temporary’ torment a person believes they will receive after death as a result of one’s sins, before admission into heaven/paradise. Investigating the effects of TAP beliefs can help to understand their social impact on contemporary Islamic societies. Drawing on related research on the Protestant ethic hypothesis, and self-control theory, the present study theorized the negative psychological and social impact of TAP. We argue that the effect of the Predestination doctrine on pro-sociality is best attributed to the Protestant denial of belief in TAP, and that the positive impact of afterlife punishment beliefs on self-control and prosocial behavior decreases with belief in TAP. To test these hypotheses, we first developed the Temporary Afterlife Punishment Expectations (TAPE) scale and examined the relationship between TAPE and self-control, rule-breaking ability, and integrity (as an indicator of prosocial behavior). Data were collected from Muslim youth in two countries (Jordan N = 605 and Malaysia N = 303). Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses of the Jordanian data support the construct validity of the TAPE scale. In line with our hypotheses, path analysis results supported the negative effects of TAPE on self-control, rule-breaking ability, and integrity. Replicating the study with the Malaysian sample led to similar results. Future research directions are recommended.

The rapid advancement of information technology challenges Muslim youths, fostering individualism and antisocial behaviors, thus necessitating effective education strategies to promote prosocial actions. This research aimed to summarize studies on the formation of prosocial behavior through character education methods from the synthesis of several studies and review effective methods for developing prosocial behavior. This research used a literature review method for several articles about social behavior and character education. Data collection was carried out by studying the documentation of several previous articles through database searches such as Google Scholar, Sinta, Science Direct, and Taylor and Francis. The data analysis technique used was qualitative descriptive analysis. The results of this research indicated that the noble character development method will be effective in forming prosocial behavior. The character education method by focusing on the appreciation of noble moral values in character education produced positive habits. The process of realizing noble moral values was through various moral education methods, such as Tadzkiroh, the religious lessons with regular Islamic discussion activities that combined subjects with noble moral values and exemplary methods.

This paper aims to assess the perception of Malaysian Muslim youth concerning spirituality development programs and its determinants. To achieve the objectives of this study, primary data was collected using a structured questionnaire and a quantitative approach was employed. Out of the total of 3,648 collected responses, the data was analyzed using descriptive statistics, t-tests, ANOVA, and multiple regression techniques. It was found that the average perception score of Muslim youth concerning the management of spirituality activities was 7.67 on a 10 point scale revealing that there is some room for improvement. Further, the management of spirituality activities among Muslim youth was found to be influenced by a total of eight (8) dimensions which include age, education, familial and peer influence, shariah, akhlak, akidah and the need for the spirituality program. Thus, for the management of spirituality activities to be effective, the quality and design of the content, the method of delivery, and the active involvement of a knowledgeable facilitator need to be prioritized.

Abstract: Humans confront numerous societal problems in today's globalized world, including environmental concerns. Among digital natives (Today and future youth), environmental conservation efforts are more popular. As the heirs of the planet, the younger generation must be aware and move to repair what has been damaged. Among the many ways to save the environment, trying to link it to religion is one of the trends among the Muslim Youth, just as young groups from other religions do. The meeting between religious teachings and the environment is called eco-theology. Ecotheology Movement emerged not only for a critique of human behaviour that destroys nature without maintaining the balance of nature but also to protect the planet because our earth is sacred. This study examined how Muslim youth as digital natives integrate Islamic- theology into ecological activism. This study uses a qualitative methodology-based phenomenology framework with interviews, direct involvement, and exploratory reading of environmental literature from an Islamic point of view. Finally, we find out what makes it attractive among digital natives, how these two movements combine religious values into ecological movements, and what kinds of pro-social behaviours their members show as something interesting, innovative, as well as sustainable based on six Islamic doctrines (1) The doctrine of oneness (tawhid), (2) The doctrine of creation (fitra), (3) The doctrine of stewardship (khilafa), (4) responsibility (al-mas'uliyyah) and Al-Amanah (trusts), and (5) The doctrine of servitude ('ubudiyya), and (6) The doctrine of balance (mizan).
 Keywords: Islamic ecotheological; Ecodeen; Green Cadre of Muhammadiyah; environment; ecotheology