Main vegetation types and species composition of Daluo Mountain, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China

ABSTRACTAimsThis study assessed changes in woody vegetation cover, richness, diversity, and species composition in Gonarezhou National Park (GNP) between 2010 and 2023, focusing on the impacts of fire and elephants. Analyses were conducted for the entire park and its main vegetation types and ecoregions.LocationGNP is located in southern Zimbabwe, bordering Mozambique, covering approximately 5000 km2.MethodsIn 2010, 313 sampling areas were surveyed, and a resurvey was conducted in 2022/2023 using a plotless method. For each area, woody species cover was recorded in four height classes. Indices for total woody cover, species richness, diversity (Shannon), and evenness (Pielou) were calculated for both surveys across the park, ecoregions, and vegetation types. Differences between surveys were analyzed with paired t‐tests. Species composition changes were analyzed using NMDS and PERMANOVA, while the effects of fire frequency, slope, and distance from rivers on species composition were tested with a mixed linear model. The change in dominant species occurrence was also examined.ResultsSpecies richness significantly declined, with no changes in woody vegetation cover, diversity, or evenness, except in the alluvial ecoregion, where diversity decreased. Changes across height layers revealed increased richness and diversity in the < 1 m layer and declines in the 1–3 m and 3–5 m layers. Species composition changes were significant across ecoregions and influenced by fire frequency. A decrease in dominant tree species was observed, varying by species' resilience to current pressures.ConclusionsGNP is undergoing simplification in woody vegetation, likely due to the combined effects of elephants and fire. This is leading to shrubbier vegetation and changes in species composition, particularly in trees. To prevent further degradation, actions must be implemented, such as the use of individual protection systems from debarking, the development of a fire management system, and the creation of ecological corridors in the Greater Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation Area to facilitate the movement of elephants.

Pikas burrowing activity promotes vegetation species diversity in alpine grasslands on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau

Predictors of plant diversity in a hyperarid desert wadi ecosystem

Aim Climate‐modelling exercises have demonstrated that the Cape Floristic Region is highly sensitive to climate change and will apparently lose much of its northern limits over the next few decades. Because there is little monitoring of diversity in this area, ant assemblage structure was investigated within the main vegetation types in the Greater Cederberg Biodiversity Corridor. In particular, we sought to determine how ant assemblage structure differs between the main vegetation types, how restricted ants – and in particular the major myrmecochores – are to the major vegetation types, and which environmental variables might underlie differences in the ant assemblages and in the specificity of species to particular areas.Location Northern Cape Floristic Region, Western Cape, South Africa.Methods Sampling was undertaken during October 2002 and March 2003 across an altitudinal gradient ranging from sea level (Lambert's Bay) toc.2000 m a.s.l. (Sneeukop, Cederberg) and down again to 500 m a.s.l. (Wupperthal) in the Western Cape, South Africa. Pitfall traps were used to sample ants at 17 altitudinal bands, stretching over three vegetation types (Strandveld, Mountain Fynbos and Succulent Karoo). Biotic and abiotic environmental variables were collected at each sampling site. Generalized linear models were used to determine the relationships between species richness, density, abundance and the abundance of the major myrmecochores, and the environmental variables. Redundancy analysis was used to determine the relationship between ant assemblage structure and the environmental variables. The Indicator Value Method was used to identify characteristic ant species for each vegetation type and altitudinal site.Results Temperature explained significant proportions of the variation in species density and abundance, and, together with area and several vegetation variables, contributed significantly to the separation of the assemblages in the major vegetation types and biomes. Four major myrmecochores were identified [Anoplolepissp. (cf.custodiens),Anoplolepissp. (cf.steinergroeveri),Camponotus niveosetosus,Tetramorium quadrispinosum]. The abundances of the twoAnoplolepisspecies were related to vegetation variables, while the abundance of the other two species showed opposite relationships with temperature variables. Fourteen ant species were characteristic of certain vegetation types and altitudes. Several of these species contributed to the differences between the assemblages.Main conclusions There are likely to be substantial and complex changes to ant assemblages as climates change in the northern Cape Floristic Region. Moreover, the importance of ants for ecosystem functioning suggests that these responses are not only likely to be a response solely to vegetation changes, but might also precipitate vegetation changes. The changes that are predicted to take place in the next 50 years in the Cape Floristic Region could be substantially exacerbated by such synergistic effects, which have major implications for long‐term conservation plans. Ongoing monitoring of this transect will reveal the nature and pace of the change as it unfolds.

The asymmetric response of productivity to precipitation was recently proposed as an early warning signal for the shifts in temperate grassland function in China. It was hypothesized that the asymmetry was influenced by the increased growth of the newly emerged seedlings from the soil seed bank. Therefore, the seed density in the soil seed bank and the similarity between species composition of the vegetation and the soil seed bank should be maximized where asymmetry was maximized. However, this knowledge was still limited and unconfirmed. In this study, the desert steppe, typical steppe and the transition zone between them (with the highest asymmetry) were selected for studying the similarity index in both 2018 (dry year) and 2019 (wet year). Plant species composition was monitored in situ using an unmanned aerial vehicle. Soil seed bank samples were collected, and the seed bank density and species composition were then examined and identified in the laboratory. Results showed that: (1) The variation in vegetation species richness between the two years was the highest (41%) in the transition zone (p < 0.05), while it was only 7% and 13% for the desert steppe and typical steppe, respectively. The presence of herbaceous species mainly caused the differences in variation among three grassland types. (2) Seed density was the highest in the transition zone (114 seeds/m2 and 68 seeds/m2 in the transient and persistent soil seed bank, respectively) (p < 0.05). Additionally, herbaceous species were the main components of the soil seed bank. (3) The similarity index was the highest in the transition zone (p < 0.05), with 38%/44% and 33%/44% for the transient/persistent soil seed bank in 2018 and 2019, respectively. Our study demonstrated that variation in vegetation species composition was very similar to the composition of the seeds accumulated in the soil seed bank. These results warrant further investigation for the mechanism of asymmetric response of productivity to precipitation.

In a 4—yr field experiment, we tested the hypotheses that insectivorous birds (1) controlled densities of herbivorous grasshoppers in an ungrazed semiarid grassland in southeastern Arizona, and (2) functioned as keystone predators, by limiting abundances of grasshoppers that otherwise might change vegetation cover and species composition, and/or by mediating the effects of otherwise competitively superior members of the grasshopper assemblage. We measured grasshopper densities and vegetation on 32 464—m2 grassland plots for 1 yr, then enclosed 16 of these plots with bird exclosures and continued data collection for 3 yr. Eight of the 16 experimental plots were further modified in the last 2 yr of the study by installing fine—mesh 1 m high barriers designed to retard grasshopper dispersal. Microclimates of caged plots differed only slightly from open plots. Lizards and rodents increased inside the exclosures, but they were removed and released elsewhere such that their average abundances did not differ among treatments. By the final year of the study, mean annual adult grasshopper density was &gt;2.2 times higher on plots from which birds were excluded, and where grasshoppers were enclosed by dispersal barriers, than on unmanipulated control plots. Mean nymph density was &gt;3.0 times higher in the same comparison. Grasshoppers were significantly more abundant in bird exclosures with insect dispersal barriers, indicating that experimental plots were dispersal sources rather than sinks. Seven of 12 common grasshopper species were more abundant inside the bird exclosures, while none was less abundant. Among the more abundant taxa, those responding most positively were grass feeders: Eritettix simplex, Opeia obscura, Paropomala wyomingensis, and Phoetaliotes nebrascensis. We found no evidence that grasshoppers competed with one another under increased densities inside the bird exclosures. Although the amount of insect herbivory was somewhat higher inside the bird exclosures, and was positively correlated with grasshopper density across all 32 plots (r = 0.87), overall vegetation cover and species composition did not differ among treatments by the end of the study. Dactylotum variegatum, an aposematic species apparently immune to avian predation, showed no significant responses to the experiment. Birds clearly limited grasshoppers in this grassland ecosystem, but they failed to qualify as keystone predators, at least in the short term, for two reasons: (1) in their absence, increased grasshopper densities had no appreciable impact on vegetation cover or species composition; and (2) there was no evidence that birds mediated competition among grasshoppers.

AimsAs the determinant of water availability in drylands, groundwater plays a fundamental role in regulating vegetation distribution and ecosystem processes. Although considerable progress has been made over the past years in the relationship between environment stress and plant community-level traits, the potential influence of water stress induced by groundwater changes on plant community-level stoichiometry remains largely unclear. Here, we examined whether belowground and aboveground community-level stoichiometry responded differently to groundwater changes.MethodsWe measured nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) concentrations in plant leaves and fine-roots of 110 plots under a broad range of groundwater depths in a typical arid inland river basin. We examined the spatial patterns and drivers of community-level N:P stoichiometry in leaves and fine-roots.Important FindingsCommunity-level leaf and fine-root N, P and N:P ratios were mainly determined by groundwater, vegetation types and species composition, among which groundwater played a dominant role. Groundwater indirectly regulated community-level N:P stoichiometry through affecting vegetation types and species composition. Vegetation types and species composition had significant direct influences on community-level N:P stoichiometry. Furthermore, groundwater depth had opposite influences on community-level leaf and fine-root N:P stoichiometry. Groundwater depth regulated vegetation types and further decreased leaf N, P but increased leaf N:P ratios and fine-root N. Groundwater depth had a positive indirect impact on fine-root P but a negative indirect impact on fine-root N:P ratios primarily by affecting species composition. Our findings indicate that groundwater rather than climate conditions effectively regulates community-level N:P stoichiometry, and below- and aboveground N:P stoichiometry has opposite responses to groundwater.

Main vegetation types and plant species diversity along an altitudinal gradient of Al Baha region, Saudi Arabia.

QuestionsWhat is the diversity and main vegetation types in mesic grasslands on the Iberian Peninsula? What are the main diagnostic species of each type? What are the main environmental gradients that drive patterns of species composition? To what extent does biogeography influence community diversity?LocationIberian Peninsula (Portugal and Spain, including the French Pyrenees).MethodsFormal definitions based on the Cocktail method were used to establish a typology of mesic grasslands of the Arrhenatheretalia order. This method was applied to a stratified data set of 3485 relevés, also including other types of perennial grassland. Semi‐supervised classification based on the K‐means algorithm was used to assign almost 757 relevés into the vegetation types defined by Cocktail and to identify new ones. The types were compared by means of detrended correspondence analysis (DCA) using climate data, altitude and Ellenberg indicator values as explanatory variables.ResultsFourteen ecologically well‐defined associations were distinguished in the Arrhenatheretalia order: five in the Arrhenatherion alliance, two in Triseto‐Polygonion and seven in Cynosurion. Soil reaction, summer aridity and altitude were identified as the most important determinants of species composition. These lithological and bioclimatic gradients are related to the biogeographic diversity of the study area, which is the main driver of community diversity in Arrhenatheretalia grasslands; it is more important than the management practices expressed in the concept of alliances. The classification and ordination analyses also showed a clear differentiation in community diversity according to biogeographic sectors (eastern Cantabrian‐Atlantic, Galician‐Portuguese, Carpetan‐Leonese, Pyrenean, Orocantabrian/western Pyrenean and Oroiberian/Catalan‐Valencian). In addition, moisture and nutrient content were more important than altitude in differentiating Arrhenatherion and Triseto‐Polygonion communities in the Pyrenees.ConclusionsWe suggest a simplification of the traditional classification of the Iberian Arrhenatheretalia grasslands. For this revised classification, we propose an electronic expert system with consistent rules for assigning vegetation observations to the associations defined, and a list of the diagnostic species of each vegetation type. These results can be applied to identify and monitor the hay meadows included in Annex I of the European Habitats Directive, taking into account the biogeographic context of the indicator species.

This study evaluated the effects of the restoration of rivers carried out by the central government on streams located in major cities in South Korea. The effects of the restoration were evaluated based on the morphological and ecological characteristics, species composition and richness of vegetation, and a Riparian Vegetation Index of the restored streams. The naturalness of the streams, based on both the morphological and ecological characteristics, as well as the Riparian Vegetation Index of the restored streams was significantly lower than that of the reference rivers. The vegetation profiles of the restored streams did not reflect the flooding regimen of the river. Furthermore, the herbaceous plants found on the streambanks give way to shrubs and then to tree-dominated vegetation, respectively. The species composition of the vegetation in the restored streams showed a significant difference from that of the reference streams and this difference was particularly more significant with regards to the herbaceous plant-dominated vegetation types. The species richness of the restored streams showed a difference among the different streams but was lower than that of the reference streams. The ratio of exotic and gardening plants occupied in the species composition of the restored streams tended to be higher than that in the reference streams. Considering the above results, the restoration effects were usually low in the restored streams. Accordingly, an active adaptive management plan was recommended to improve those problems.

Changes in global precipitation patterns have had important impacts on terrestrial ecosystems. However, the relationship between alpine vegetation species composition and precipitation patterns remained uncertain. Based on in situ observations, long-term datasets of monthly aboveground biomass (AGB) and daily precipitation were applied in an alpine grassland on the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau (QTP), in order to characterize the responses of multi-species biomass to changing rainfall patterns. In this study, vegetation species composition exhibited obvious variations during 1997–2011 in alpine grasslands on the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau. Rapid increases in weed, Kobresia humilis, and Poa crymophila Keng squeezed the living space of the dominant species, Stipa sareptana var. krylovii. Meanwhile, effective precipitation had stronger effects on vegetation biomass, which were heterogeneous in different precipitation periods. Therefore, the crucial effective precipitation, accounting the effective precipitation in crucial periods, could better explain vegetation biomass variations, which could be a new representative climatic indicator to accurately describe vegetation change in alpine grasslands. In addition, crucial periods of effective precipitation appeared to influence heterogeneity for different vegetation species, which showed the heterogeneous adaptability of species to the changes in precipitation patterns. Precipitation patterns during 1997–2011 were more conducive to the growth of Poa crymophila Keng and Kobresia humilis, thereby changing the species composition in alpine grasslands. The coupling of biological environmental adaptability and abiotic crucial effective precipitation determined the variations of vegetation species composition. The new indicator of crucial effective precipitation could provide a new perspective for studying and predicting the species dynamics of alpine grassland.

The Ecuadorian Andes in northwestern South America are well known for being among the hot spots of global vascular plant diversity due to their complex topography (uplift of the mountain chain), varying climatic conditions and different vegetation types. Despite its high biodiversity level, the Ecuadorian Andes represent a most threatened and poorly studied landscape. Especially the páramo and mountain ecosystems are subject to overgrazing, burning, cultivation and deforestation caused by the expansion of human activity during the last decades. The knowledge of palaeoecology and landscape dynamics is important in order to understand past processes that played a major role in the development of the ecosystems and Ecuadorian landscapes of today. Nevertheless only a limited number of palaeoecological studies are available from the Ecuadorian Andes. This thesis presents palynological analyses carried out at three different sites in the central and southern Ecuadorian Andes region to better understand the past vegetation changes, climate and fire dynamics as well as human impact since the late Pleistocene. The analysis of the sediment core El Cristal, located on the eastern slope at the Protective Forest Corazón de Oro in southeastern Ecuador reveals changes in the vegetation distribution, climate, fire regime and human impact since late Pleistocene. During the late Pleistocene mountain forest was the main vegetation type. In particular, there is evidence of a Polylepis forest which does not occur today. Nevertheless there is also evidence of relatively high proportion of páramo, which suggest that an open mountain forest occupied the region. The presence of páramo taxa during the late Pleistocene, points to an upper forest line (UFL) at a markedly lower elevation. The transition from the late Pleistocene to the early mid-Holocene was characterized by mountain forest and a stable proportion of páramo vegetation. However, after ca. 4000 cal yr BP, the Polylepis forest decreased, probably because of an increase in fire frequency. During the mid- to late Holocene the composition of the vegetation changed. The mountain forest was less frequent and the páramo vegetation expanded. Higher proportions of Asteraceae and Muehlenbeckia/Rumex (since ca. 1380 cal yr BP) reflect landscape disturbance probably by human impact. Fires were recorded throughout the late Pleistocene but were more frequent during the wetter late Holocene, which suggests that they were of anthropogenic origin. The pollen record from Cajanuma valley, in the western slope at the Podocarpus National Park, southern Ecuador, reveals environmental changes since the late Glacial. During the late Glacial, herb páramo rich in Poaceae, Cyperaceae and Gentianaceae covered the area. The UFL occurred at a much lower elevation than today. The early to mid-Holocene is characterized by partial replacement of treeless páramo by a mountain forest (Symplocos taxa), which moves into higher elevations where it is today. During the mid- to late Holocene there is evidence of a vegetation change. The páramo re-expanded with the dominance of Poaceae and high presence of Huperzia and Cyatheaceae. During the late Holocene páramo was the main vegetation type that covered the area. Fires became frequent since the late Holocene. The Anteojos valley pollen record, which is located in the western slope at the Llanganates National Park, central Ecuadorian Andes, yields a detailed environmental reconstruction of the past ca. 4100 years. Páramo vegetation had a dominant and stable occurrence in the study area (Poaceae, Cyperaceae and Asteraceae); especially between ca. 4100 to 3100 cal yr BP. Between ca. 3100 to 2100 cal yr BP páramo decreased followed by a slight expansion of mountain forest (Moraceae/Urticaceae, Trema, Celtis and Macrocarpaea). From ca. 2100 cal yr BP to the present páramo once again became more frequent with stable occurrence of mountain forest taxa. Low frequencies of fires were evidenced throughout the record but there is evidence of a slight increase during ca. 4100 to 3100 cal yr BP.

Introduction The Franklin-Gordon Wild Rivers National Park is part of the Tasmanian Wilderness World Heritage Area (TWWHA). It encompasses mainly cool temperate rainforest and wet sclerophyll forest ecologies. These ecologies contain some of the best representations of Australia's ancient flora dating back 60 million years to the time of Gondwana (Parks and Wildlife Service Tasmania, 2005b). The habitat of many endemic, rare, threatened and endangered Australian animals are located in the area (Griffiths & Baxter, 1997, p. 1), which also contains many sites of spiritual and cultural significance to the indigenous people of the area, such as Kuti Kina Cave (Griffiths & Baxter, 1997, pp. 26-27). The area has a colourful history of use, abuse and shifting values dating back over 36,000 years to the first recorded human activity in the area by the Tasmanian Aborigines. However, the most dramatic impacts and changes have occurred in the last 140 years since white Australians first started visiting the area. The Franklin River became well known in the 1970s and 80s as a result of the controversial plan to dam the Franklin, and subsequently, as a popular destination for tourists and nature enthusiasts. In this paper, I plan to describe the Franklin River environment, the changes it has experienced over time, and to detail how visitors to the area can act responsibly to ensure the future health of this unique environment for generations to follow. I will also discuss some potential broader implications of tourism in the area. To assist the preparation of this paper, informal interviews were conducted with two commercial rafting company managers (Geoff Mitchell from Rafting Tasmania and Brett Fernon from Water by Nature), and an unknown representative of the Parks and Wildlife Service Tasmania (PWST) from the Queenstown Office. The Franklin-Gordon Wild Rivers National Park environment Native flora The two main vegetation types around the Franklin River are: Cool Temperate Rainforests (CTR), which line the banks of the river; and Wet Sclerophyll Forests (WSF), which grow inland of the Rainforest. The main species that grow in the CTR include Myrtle, Leatherwood, Celery-top Pine, Sassafras, Huon Pine, Pencil Pine, King Billy Pine or Deciduous Beech (Parks and Wildlife Service Tasmania, 2005b). The Huon Pine is endemic to south-west Tasmanian rivers and along with other slow growing pines, are Australia's oldest living trees. They are also one of the oldest living organisms in the world, some reaching 3,000 years of age (Parks and Wildlife Service, 2003c, p. 2). Wet Sclerophyll Forests have a shrub layer which consists mainly of musk (Olearia argophylla), blanket leaf (Bedfordia salicina) and wattles (Acacia). Species of Ash tend to dominate WSF with fertile soils as does the Swamp Gum (E. regnans). Where the soil is less fertile, endemic species like the Smithton Peppermint (E. nitida, and the alpine Yellow Gum (E. subcrenulata) dominate along with Brooker's Gum (E. brookeriana) (PWST, 2005a). Introduced species According to rafting guides who have been visiting the area for over 20 years (G. Mitchell, and B. Fernon, personal communication, October 28, 2005), blackberries are beginning to take hold in the upper reaches of the Franklin River near the paddling put in point. These have been cut out, and it remains to be seen if they will cause any more damage in the lower reaches of the river. Other weeds affecting the Franklin-Gordon National Park include Spanish Heath (a native to mainland Australia), Holly, and Gorse. Management involves physically removing the weeds without using pesticides and chemicals, which can contaminate the water catchment (PWST-Queenstown Office, personal communication, October 29, 2005). The root rot Phytophthora cinnamomi is present in the area and is a major threat to native plants. It is transmitted in mud and soil, especially on boots and vehicle tyres. …

Question: Can we improve the knowledge of urban vegetation using data from ongoing floristic and management projects with a data mining approach? We have two questions: 1. How strong is the relationship between land cover pattern and the species composition of vegetation? 2. What is the relationship between land cover pattern and species richness? Location: Trieste, northeastern Italy. Methods: Using land cover maps and GIS we characterized the cells of a floristic project grid by percentage cover of land cover types. We applied Canonical Correlation Analysis to test the correlation between floristic composition of the cells and land cover. We classified the cells by clustering methods, based on land cover description. With these clusters, we analysed the variation of species composition of urban vegetation along a gradient of urban density. We used Jaccard's similarity index to compare floristic composition of the clusters with the floristic composition of the homogeneous cells with respect to t...

Question: Can we improve the knowledge of urban vegetation using data from ongoing floristic and management projects with a data mining approach? We have two questions: 1. How strong is the relationship between land cover pattern and the species composition of vegetation? 2. What is the relationship between land cover pattern and species richness?Location: Trieste, northeastern Italy.Methods: Using land cover maps and GIS we characterized the cells of a floristic project grid by percentage cover of land cover types. We applied Canonical Correlation Analysis to test the correlation between floristic composition of the cells and land cover. We classified the cells by clustering methods, based on land cover description. With these clusters, we analysed the variation of species composition of urban vegetation along a gradient of urban density. We used Jaccard's similarity index to compare floristic composition of the clusters with the floristic composition of the homogeneous cells with respect to the land cover types. To answer question 2, we calculated land cover heterogeneity with the Shannon index and correlated the number of species in clusters with land cover heterogeneity and urban density.Results: Each land cover type contributes to species richness and species composition of the clusters. Species richness decreases significantly and linearly as urban density increases and land cover heterogeneity decreases in the clusters.Conclusions: A data mining approach can combine different existing projects to improve knowledge of the urban vegetation system. The methods we have applied offer tools to answer the specific questions mentioned above.