Machine Learning and Morphometric Analysis for Runoff Dynamics: Enhancing Flood Management and Catchment Prioritization in Bayelsa, Nigeria

The integration of traditional geomorphological approaches with advanced artificial intelligence techniques represents a promising frontier in flood risk assessment for arid regions. This study presents a comprehensive analysis of the Wadi Ranuna basin in Medina, Saudi Arabia, combining detailed morphometric parameters with advanced Geospatial Artificial Intelligence (GeoAI) algorithms to enhance flood susceptibility modeling. Using digital elevation models (DEMs) and geographic information systems (GISs), we extracted 23 morphometric parameters across 67 sub-basins and applied XGBoost, Random Forest, and Gradient Boosting (GB) models to predict both continuous flood susceptibility indices and binary flood occurrences. The machine learning models utilize morphometric parameters as input features to capture complex non-linear interactions, including threshold-dependent relationships where the stream frequency impact intensifies above 3.0 streams/km2, and the compound effects between the drainage density and relief ratio. The analysis revealed that the basin covers an area of 188.18 km2 with a perimeter of 101.71 km and contains 610 streams across six orders. The basin exhibits an elongated shape with a form factor of 0.17 and circularity ratio of 0.23, indicating natural flood-moderating characteristics. GB emerged as the best-performing model, achieving an RMSE of 6.50 and an R2 value of 0.9212. Model validation through multi-source approaches, including field verification at 35 locations, achieved 78% spatial correspondence with documented flood events and 94% accuracy for very high susceptibility areas. SHAP analysis identified the stream frequency, overland flow length, and drainage texture as the most influential predictors of flood susceptibility. K-Means clustering uncovered three morphometrically distinct zones, with Cluster 1 exhibiting the highest flood risk potential. Spatial analysis revealed 67% of existing infrastructure was located within high-risk zones, with 23 km of major roads and eight critical facilities positioned in flood-prone areas. The spatial distribution of GBM-predicted flood susceptibility identified high-risk zones predominantly in the central and southern parts of the basin, covering 12.3% (23.1 km2) of the total area. This integrated approach provides quantitative evidence for informed watershed management decisions and demonstrates the effectiveness of combining traditional morphometric analysis with advanced machine learning techniques for enhanced flood risk assessment in arid regions.

The dataset for this article includes morphological analysis of the level to which groundwater potential of the Vasishta River, Salem and Perambalur districts of Tamil Nadu. The method for the computation of morphometric parameters using data Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of the Vasishta River, is also prepared using SRTM (Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission) 90 m resolution data Morphometric parameter linear, aerial and relief limits, such as a bifurcation ratio (Rb), Drainage density (Dd) Stream Frequency (Fs) Elongation ratio (Re), Length of overland flow (Lg), Relief ratio, ruggedness number (Rn) and Slope (sb) of Vasishta Sub Basin (VSB). The relief ratio indicates that the discharge should be considered high priority given to the following micro-watersheds numbers 9,1,15,11 and 10. This data could be very useful to help with sustainable groundwater planning in any similar basins.

GIS and Remote sensing have proved to be a resourceful tool in the explanation of drainage pattern for water resources management and its planning. The identification of morphometric characteristics based on a Geographic Information System (GIS) was carried out in the Nagavathi watershed, Dharmapuri District. The quantitative drainage morphometric parameters was carried out for the Nagavathi watershed by estimating their (a) Linear aspects like Stream number, Stream order, Stream length, Mean stream length, Stream length ratio, Bifurcation ratio, (b) Aerial aspects like Drainage density, Stream frequency, Texture Ratio, Elongation ratio, Form factor, Circularity index, Length of overflow, Constant of Channel maintenance, Drainage texture, Compactness coefficient and (c) Relief aspects like Basin relief, Relief ratio, Ruggedness number, Gradient ratio, Melton ruggedness ratio, Slope, relative relief, Shape Factor and Leminscate. The drainage area of Nagavithi watershed is 482 sq. Km. the main drainage patterns is dendritic to sub-dendritic drainage. The Nagavathi watershed was classified as a fifth order drainage watershed, whereas micro watershed was classified as an eight in the watershed. Stream order of the watershed was predominantly controlled by structural and lithological controls of various drainage patterns and their stream orientations were identified to evaluate the direction and controlling factors in drainage network. The drainage density in the area has been found to be low which indicates that the area possesses highly permeable soils and low relief. The bifurcation ratio varies from 0.8 to 43.1.
 The elongation ratio of Microwatersheds varies from 0.13 to 0.43, indicates Microwatersheds fall under elongated pattern. This study would help the local people to utilize the resources for planning rainwater harvesting and watershed management.

The Kharun River Basin, a significant watershed of the Sheonath River within the larger Mahanadi River Basin, represents a critical hydrological system in India that demands focused study for sustainable management. As natural resources like land, water, and soil face intense pressure due to increasing population and resource utilization, it is vital to understand the dynamics of these resources to ensure their sustainable usage and management. In this study, a range of morphometric parameters—categorized as linear, areal, and relief aspects—are analyzed to understand the spatial variations within the basin. The methodology incorporates digital elevation model (DEM) data to derive critical morphometric features, including stream order, bifurcation ratio, drainage density, stream frequency, and relief ratio, which are essential indicators of the hydrological behavior of the basin. These parameters are not only indicative of the basin's potential for water retention and flow regulation but also serve as a basis for assessing the susceptibility of the area to erosion, sediment transport, and flooding. Using SRTM (Shuttle Radar Topography Mission) data, the study delineates the Kharun River Basin’s drainage network, highlighting its hierarchical structure and identifying critical zones for conservation. Furthermore, a detailed examination of the Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of the Kharun River Basin provides insights into elevation changes, slope distribution, and watershed boundaries, which are essential for water resource management and flood mitigation planning. The aspect analysis of the basin reveals directional slopes, which impact water flow direction and soil moisture distribution, influencing land use practices and vegetation patterns. The DEM and aspect maps, along with the morphometric analysis, offer a comprehensive understanding of the basin’s hydrological framework. The outcomes of this research are expected to aid in the effective management of the Kharun River Basin’s natural resources. The findings support water catchment management by identifying potential water storage areas and areas at risk of soil erosion. Additionally, insights from the study can contribute to agricultural land-use planning by suggesting suitable zones for cultivation and advising on sustainable water usage for industrial activities. This study also addresses hazard management by identifying flood-prone areas and erosion-sensitive regions, thereby assisting policymakers in developing targeted strategies for disaster mitigation and resource conservation. Ultimately, the morphometric analysis of the Kharun River Basin provides a valuable scientific foundation for ensuring the sustainable development of the region’s natural resources

Effective soil and water conservation is critical in fragile watersheds prone to erosion. However, assessing erosion susceptibility in ungauged watersheds remains challenging due to the lack of observed hydrological data This study addresses this gap by employing a comprehensive morphometric analysis integrated with remote sensing (RS) and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to prioritize erosion-prone sub-watersheds within the ecologically sensitive and data-scarce Urpash watershed. Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) Digital Elevation Model (DEM) data and ArcGIS 10.7 were used to analyze a 21.37 km² area. Key morphometric parameters—including linear, areal, and relief aspects—were assessed to understand watershed hydrology and erosion susceptibility. A total of 32 streams were identified, categorized into 1st to 3rd orders. Watershed shape indices, such as elongation ratio (Re = 0.65), form factor (Rf = 0.33) and circularity ratio (Rc = 0.295), indicate an elongated shape, indicative of reduced surface runoff and erosion potential, along with higher sub-soil permeability. However, drainage parameters like drainage density (Dd = 1.67 km/km2), stream frequency (Fs = 1.49 km-2) and drainage intensity (Di = 0.89 km-1) pointed to the watershed’s susceptibility to flooding, gully erosion, and landslides due to slow surface runoff dispersion. Relief parameters such as basin relief (H = 1742.87 m), relief ratio (Rh = 0.22) and ruggedness number (Rn = 2.9) reflect the watershed’s high relief and steep terrain, indicating a greater susceptibility to erosion. Using a compound parameter approach, the sub-watershed prioritisation ranked WS3 as the highest priority, followed by WS4, WS5, WS6, WS2, and WS1. By using RS and GIS-based morphometric analysis in an ungauged Urpash watershed, this study provides a geospatial framework for targeted soil and water conservation strategies, contributing to more precise watershed management in data-scarce and erosion-vulnerable regions.

Flash flood susceptibility assessment using the parameters of drainage basin morphometry in SE Bangladesh

Geographical information system and remote sensing are proven to be an efficient tool for locating water harvesting structures by prioritization of mini-watersheds through morphometric analysis. In this study, the morphometric analysis and prioritization of ten mini-watersheds of Malesari watershed, situated in Bhavnagar district of Saurashtra region of Gujarat state, India, are studied. For prioritization of mini-watersheds, morphometric analysis is utilized by using the linear parameters such as bifurcation ratio, drainage density, stream frequency, texture ratio, and length of overland flow and shape parameters such as form factor, shape factor, elongation ratio, compactness constant, and circularity ratio. The different prioritization ranks are assigned after evaluation of the compound factor. Digital elevation model from Shuttle Radar Topography Mission, digitized contour, and other thematic layers like drainage order, drainage density, and geology are created and analyzed over ArcGIS 9.1 platform. Combining all thematic layers with soil and slope map, the best feasibility of positioning check dams in mini-watershed has been proposed, after validating the sites through the field surveys.

The morphometric analysis of a river basin provides critical insights into its hydrological and geomorphological characteristics, essential for effective watershed management and planning. This study presents a detailed morphometric analysis of the Gostani River Basin using Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographic Information System (GIS) techniques. High-resolution satellite imagery and topographic data, including Digital Elevation Models (DEMs), were utilized to extract drainage networks and basin boundaries. Key linear, areal, and relief morphometric parameters such as stream order, bifurcation ratio, drainage density, stream frequency, elongation ratio, and relief ratio were computed using GIS tools. The results reveal that the Gostani River Basin exhibits dendritic drainage patterns, moderate drainage density, and a sub-mature stage of geomorphic development, indicating semi-permeable sub-surface material and moderate to low relief. The analysis highlights the usefulness of RS and GIS in deriving accurate and comprehensive morphometric parameters, facilitating better understanding of basin dynamics for sustainable water resource management and environmental planning.

Locating flood susceptible areas in Sabah Al-Ahmed city, Kuwait

The Wadi Degla basin is amongst the most important basins in the north-eastern part of the Eastern Desert, east of Maadi, Cairo, which drains into River Nile. It covers an area of about 177.6 km2. Although it located in an arid region, the basin could receive a huge amount of rainwater during heavy rainstorms which in turn lead to initiate flash flood hazard and causing catastrophic effects on existing infrastructure of main gate and tracks of protected area, also threatened visitor's life and surrounding environments. The present study aims to evaluate of flash flood risk in Wadi Degla and possible mitigation. The morphometric parameters investigation were carried out using ASTER Digital Elevation Model (DEM), GIS, and geomorphic field observations. Using a technique given by El-Shamy, the risk degree for the Wadi Degla basin's vulnerability to flash flooding risk was calculated. The first technique focuses on the relationship between drainage density and bifurcation ratio, whereas the second relies on the relationship between drainage frequency and bifurcation ratio. For the examined basin of the watershed, the third morphometric parameter (the bifurcation ratio, drainage density, and stream frequency) were obtained and calculated. The bifurcation ratio, stream frequency, and drainage density all have values of 1.7, 6.05, and 2 according to morphometric study. The bifurcation ratio, stream frequency, and drainage density have morphometric values of 1.7, 6.05, and 2 respectively, as per morphometric analysis. The Wadi Degla has elongated shape. According to the computed metrics (e.g., stream frequency, bifurcation ratio and drainage density), the Wadi Degla basin catchment area falls into category (A). This means that there is expected high susceptibility of flash flooding possibility in the area under consideration. This expected risk leads the Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation to establish three dams on the pass of Wadi Degla to work as an obstacle for decrease the flash flood velocity flow. Consequently, from an environmental hazards point of view, the Wadi Degla Protected Area should be closed during heavy rainfall for visitor safety and also avoid the establishment of any basic infrastructure in the vicinity of the Wadi pass.

<p>Morphometric analysis is a quantitative description and measurement of landforms. it has an important role in understanding the quantitative geomorphology of a drainage basin across the linear, areal, and relief aspects. Geographical Information System (GIS) and remote sensing technologies are effective in the determination of the morphological characteristics of the basin and make the process of analysis easier than traditional methods. Morphometric analysis is crucial for watershed planning, it reveals pieces of information about soil condition, soil erosion, sediment yields, and water storage capacity, and it also indicates important information concerning the incidence of infiltration, runoff, and flood. The main objective of this study is to assess the morphometric characteristics of the Soummam Basin which is considered one of the most important hydrological areal units in Algeria based on the Digital Elevation Model (ASTER DEM 30m) using Qgis. Morphometric parameters included for this study are: Stream order, stream number, stream length, bifurcation ratio, basin area, stream frequency, form factor, circularity ratio, elongation ratio, drainage density, drainage texture, ruggedness number, constant of channel maintenance, infiltration number, basin relief, and relief ratio. We discussed the affecting factors and the hydrological implications for each one of these parameters for the Soummam basin, its two Sub-basins Sahel and Boussellam, the Ain Zada dam catchment within the Boussellam sub-basin, and the 9 sub-catchments that discharge in the Ain Zada dam catchment with a comparative analysis of these drainage basins. The Soummam basin was designated a seventh-order basin when its two sub-basins had the 6th order and for the sub-catchments that discharge in Ain Zada dam the order of the drainage basin varies from 5th order to 3rd order. The drainage density results were low which indicates that the study area deal with a run-off possesses dominated by infiltration and sub-surface flow, a high permeability, and a dense vegetation cover with a low intensity of rainfall. Form factor, elongation ratio, and circularity ratio results accorded an elongated shape for most of the drainage basins, elongated basins have low pick flow with longer duration. Infiltration numbers results indicated a high infiltration rate and a low run-off. These results are useful for watershed prioritization, and mapping the groundwater recharge potential zone, and they indicate the importance of groundwater potential in the study area, also they can provide scientific material for flood management, water storage, and soil erosion for better watershed management & efficiency better sustainable watershed plan which aim to conserve natural resource</p>

Quantitative Analysis of Geomorphology and Flow Pattern Analysis of Muvattupuzha River Basin Using Geographic Information System

In this study morphometric analysis of eight watersheds of the Kandi region of Punjab, India was done using remote sensing (RS) and geographical information system (GIS). On the basis of the morphometric analysis, prioritizations of the watersheds for the application of soil and water conservation (SWC) measures and preparation of watershed plan was carried out. The study included computation of linear parameters (stream order, stream length, bifurcation ratio etc.), areal parameters (drainage density, stream frequency, texture ratio, length of overland flow etc.), shape parameters (form factor, circulatory ratio, elongation ratio etc.) and relief parameters (relief, relief ratio, ruggedness number etc.). The other watershed parameters like relative perimeter (P ), rel Mean basin width (W ), Fitness ratio (R ), Lemniscate ratio (K), Hypsometric integral mb f (HI), RHO coefficient (ρ), Drainage intensity (D ), Drainage texture (D ), Infiltration i t number (I ) and Melton ruggedness number (M ) were estimated for the assessment of n Rn the soil erosion in the watersheds. The Simbal Mazara, Lalpur, Ballowal Saunkhari, Dohali and Fatepur watersheds are having fifth order stream network. The priority rank for each watershed was assigned using compound factor value. The results of this analysis illustrated that Lalpur watershed has lowest compound parameter value so it is subjected to more erosion hence first priority is given to this watershed for the application of appropriate SWC measures for its development and management. Then Sahungra, Rakran Dahan and Dobhali watersheds needs immediate attention for the application of the SWC measures because Sahungra watershed was given second and Rakran Dahan and Dobhali watersheds were given third priority for its development and management.

This study utilized Spatial Information Technology (SIT) such as Remote Sensing (RS), a Geographical Information System (GIS), the Global Positioning System (GPS) and a high-resolution Digital Elevation Model (DEM) for a morphometrical analysis of five sub-basins within the Lower Niger River Basin, Nigeria. Morpho-metrical parameters, such as the total relief, relative relief, relief ratio, ruggedness number, texture ratio, elongation ratio, circularity ratio, form factor ratio, drainage density, stream frequency, sinuosity factor and bifurcation ratio, have been computed and analyzed. The study revealed that the contribution of the morphometric parameters to flooding suggest catchment No. 1 has the least concentration time and the highest runoff depth. Catchment No. 4 has the highest circularity ratio (0.35) as the most hazardous site where floods could reach a great volume over a small area.

Remote sensing (RS) and Geographical Information System (GIS) techniques have become very important these days as they aid planners and decision makers to make effective and correct decision and designs. Geomorphological characteristics of a watershed are commonly used for developing the regional hydrological models for solving various hydrological problems of ungauged watersheds or inadequate data situations. A morphometric analysis of Mago basin of Arunachal Pradesh was carried out using RS and GIS techniques. The Watershed was delineated using ArcGIS10 software and divided into 15 subwatersheds and prioritized based on principal component analysis (PCA) using SPSS 14.0 software. The basic parameters (area, perimeter, stream order, stream length and stream number) of each sub-watershed were carried out separately using the ArcMap10. The linear morphometric parameters (stream order, total stream length and bifurcation ratio); aerial morphometric parameters (drainage density, stream frequency, form factor, circulatory ratio, elongation ratio, texture ratios, compactness constant and Ruggedness number); and relief morphometric parameters (relief ratio, relative relief, average slope and hypsometric integral) were computed with the help of standard formulae. The principal components were selected and then ranked based on their relationship with erodibility. The sub-watershed having the least compound parameter was assigned the highest priority and so on. The study area was found to have streams of highest order of 3, with order 1, having highest frequency. The obtained low drainage density of the basin indicates that the region is highly permeable. From the prioritization analysis, it was found that sub-watershed 2, 4, and 14 were the most erosion prone areas with rank 1. Therefore, these sub-watersheds need to be considered first and given prior importance for the implementation of any soil and water conservation measures for watershed management. Hence, RS and GIS techniques and PCA are important tools in the morphometric analysis and prioritization of watershed.