Lutheran Ecotheology and the Anthropocene: Posthumanism, Apocalypse, and Hope

After more than thirty years, Bernhard Lohse presents the first attempt to compile the results of modern research concerning Luther's theological subjects. With regard to the contents Lohse's view of Luther's theology is compared with other possible assumptions. In the methodological point of view he intends to connect historical and systematic questions in order to find a way to Luther's systematic theology. But this connection, represented more in addition to than in relationship of its parts, does not lead to definite results, as Lohse acknowledges himself. Considering the hypothesis of a historically founded theory the question of the best method still remains open. An answer may be found in seeing Luther's theology according to the genera of his works. Above all, his academic lectures will be important for an adequate reconstruction - shown by some significant but incomplete examples.

Reviewed by: Martin Luther's Legacy: Reframing Reformation Theology for the 21st Century by Mark Ellingsen Aaron Klink Martin Luther's Legacy: Reframing Reformation Theology for the 21st Century. By Mark Ellingsen. New York: Palgrave McMillian, 2017. 348 pp. Ellingsen, church history professor at Atlanta's Interdenominational Theological Center, attempts to "re-frame" Luther's theology to apply Luther's pastoral and theological insights to a contemporary context. The methodological foundation for his proposal is an attempt to distinguish starkly between Luther's polemical writings against theological opponents and Luther's pastoral writings for his theological adherents. Like many contemporary theologians and church historians Ellingsen views Luther as a pastoral rather than as a systematic theologian. He argues that re-framing Lutheran theology in the twenty-first century requires the recognition that Luther's theology cannot be applied in abstraction from its pastoral impact on a particular individual or community. Yet the distinctions between the pastoral and polemical Luther are not always as clear as this book asserts. For instance, it is Luther's strong assertion of God's absolute and total claim on a believer in baptism that makes the doctrine so pastorally compelling to a believer's troubled conscience. Luther makes that case powerfully in various treatises and letters to [End Page 354] both his followers and to his opponents. In cases like this, the distinction between pastoral and polemical seems to falter. Ellingsen correctly asserts that Luther was profoundly concerned with the pastoral impact of his teaching on the faith of ordinary Christians and did not write theological treatises without their pastoral implications in mind. The book argues that "identifying the pastoral purposes for which Luther deployed various doctrinal configurations can also be an important step in developing a new paradigm for systematic theology, one which is sensitive to today's pastoral concerns" (3). Following the methodological chapters, the book marks a path taken by twentieth- and twenty-first-century theologians, including Paul Althaus, Oswald Bayer, and Hans Martin Barth, who provide a chapter-by-chapter analysis of Luther's theology based on specific theological topics, such as Trinity, Christology, and the Holy Spirit. These overviews are very helpful and allow Luther's own theology and voice to come to expression without too much abstraction from the primary source material. At the same time, Luther's theology has some basic tenets about God, the Lord's Supper, and the Trinity that Luther believed to be unquestionably true. This is not something Ellingsen acknowledges as clearly as he should. While the distinction between pastoral and polemical writings may be tenuous, Ellingsen's chapters on individual topics are filled with Luther quotes and citations. This alone makes it a rich resource for pastors and others who seek to teach Luther's thought on particular topics. At the end, Ellingsen provides a three-page conclusion which seems insufficient for a project that claims to "re-frame" Luther's vast theology for modern times. The conclusion again reasserts that Luther's theology is more "polar" in its construal when dealing with opponents but "smoothed out when dealing with various doctrines" (335). Still, such assertions left this reviewer wanting Ellingsen to be clearer on what was rhetoric and what was pastoral theology. Changes in rhetoric do not always entail or signal doctrinal change. The conclusion also asserts that Luther's theology is ecumenical since "what is characteristic of most Christian traditions can be found in [Luther's] thought." Still, parts of this overview will [End Page 355] be helpful for those seeking to teach Luther's thought even if one disagrees with the book's framing premise about the role of rhetoric in discerning Luther's theology. Aaron Klink Duke University Durham, North Carolina Copyright © 2019 Johns Hopkins University Press and Lutheran Quarterly, Inc.

The article reconstructs the cultural conditions of the possibility of theology as a specific intellectual practice. The author proceeds from the understanding of the divine as non-anthropic, that is, beyond the control of man, but at the same time exerting an irresistible influence on him. In this context, the divine appears as unintelligible, which casts doubt on the project of theology as a form of cognition of the divine. However, despite this, in the ancient Greek Poleis, the divine becomes the subject of theology as a contemplative practice; it is the contemplative attitude to the deity that allows making the divine an object of cognition. A contemplative attitude to the divine has accompanied theology throughout its history. However, it is supplemented by a practical (liturgical) attitude. The secularization of Western European culture led to the separation of theology from religious practice. In modern times, there is a specific form of theology (crypto-theology) that allows thinking about the divine and its attributes, regardless of the experience of communion with God. Besides, extra-institutional theology is being formed, free from dogmatic restrictions and even a kind of amateurish theology, whose representatives did not have special, "school" training. All these transformations eventually led to the crisis of theology and the decline of its influence. At the same time, at the beginning of the XIX century, there were conditions for the emergence of a "modern theology" that responds to the challenges of secularism. In the second half of the twentieth century, the topic and problems of modern theology were also influenced by the programs of "overcoming metaphysics" (M. Heidegger) and "deconstruction" (J. Derrida). Modern theology basically positions itself as post-metaphysical and generates more or less radical projects of phenomenological theology (J.-L. Marion, J. Manoussakis) and negative theology (J. Derrida).

Reviewed by: What Has Wittenberg to Do with Azusa? Luther’s Theology of the Cross and Pentecostal Triumphalism by David J. Courey Christopher J. Richmann What Has Wittenberg to Do with Azusa? Luther’s Theology of the Cross and Pentecostal Triumphalism. By David J. Courey. London: Blooms-bury T&T Clark, 2015. 289 pp. Scholars know that Luther was hostile to much that is associated with modern Pentecostalism, such as direct spiritual inspirations and a prominent role for miracles. In The Third Reformation? Charismatic Movements and the Lutheran Tradition (1983), Carter Lindberg argued that Luther and charismatic Christianity are basically incompatible. Certain Lutheran charismatics notwithstanding, Pentecostals have not done much to dispel this view, preferring Luther the symbolic religious hero to Luther the theologian. According to Courey, Luther and Pentecostalism can become constructive dialogue partners when one sees that in his supernaturalism, concept of priesthood of all believers, apocalypticism, and spiritual experience, “Luther actually demonstrates remarkable sympathies of heart with Pentecostalism” (2). Furthermore, Pentecostalism must be distinguished from “Pentecostal triumphalism,” a type of over-realized eschatology that draws on both restorationism and perfectionism. This, Courey asserts, is not true Pentecostalism, and it yields an uncompromising perspective with Pentecostals as a privileged class who experience mystical union with God and are assured present victory in spiritual warfare. Pentecostal himself, Courey is eager to rid his tradition of this triumphalism, which, as he says, raises expectations that are inevitably frustrated by experience and may be to blame for North American Pentecostalism’s institutional stagnation. Luther enters as a “corrective” to Pentecostal triumphalism, which, as a theology of glory, is analogous to Luther’s opposition both Protestant and Catholic. As Luther suggests in the Heidelberg Disputation (1518), the only cure for a theology of glory is the theology of the cross. To refine Luther’s basic insight into “more than a damning bludgeon with which to decimate the entire Pentecostal project as a theologia gloriae” (115), Courey calls on Bonhoeffer and Moltmann. Bonhoeffer’s penultimate/ultimate distinction correlates to Luther’s internal/external categories, suggesting that for Luther internal [End Page 220] spiritual experience can be seen as a positive but limited (penultimate) phenomenon. Moltmann articulates the resurrection theme that is inherent but largely latent in Luther’s theology of the cross. From these sources, Courey elaborates on a pneumatologia crucis that reorients restorationism and an eschatologia crucis that reorients perfectionism. Between the two stands the Pentecostal baptism of the Holy Spirit, which “fills the gap between god-forsakenness as it is experienced in the broken reality of this age and the fulfilment of eschatological promises as it exists in the age to come” (198). Courey can thus correct three areas of Pentecostal spirituality while “honor[ing] the historical intent of Pentecostalism” (186). Spiritual experience is revealed as always penultimate and oriented toward service. Perfectionism is transformed into sanctification as the destruction of the project of self-justification, with the believer always in a passive role. The miraculous is understood sacramentally and therefore cruciform, with speaking in tongues interpreted as “groaning with creation” in eschatological expectation, and healing recognizing both Christ’s resurrection victory and God’s hidden presence where healing is not experienced. The church and the academy need this type of cross-traditional historical theology. Courey is to be commended for his breadth of research in Luther, pietism, modern theology, and historical Pentecostal literature. His writing is meticulous and clear. Although Courey believes that the Pentecostal orientation towards resurrection may contribute to today’s Lutheran theology, his focus is on the Lutheran contribution to Pentecostalism. Historians of Pentecostalism and American evangelicalism will also find constructive discussion on Pentecostalism’s relationship to fundamentalism. But theologians—particularly Lutherans—will spot some trouble. For instance, Courey fails to see assurance of salvation as Luther’s central concern regarding the enthusiasts, instead focusing on Luther’s disdain for enthusiasts’ mystical extremes (226). Also, Courey’s “sacramental” interpretation of healing and tongues rests on a misconception that for Luther, faith contributes to the essence of the sacrament (236). Finally, Courey obscures the categorical “death and life” nature of Luther’s theology of the cross, describing the cross as [End Page 221] the “reduction of the self...

Reviewed by: Liturgy Outside Liturgy: The Liturgical Theology of Fr. Alexander Schmemann by David W. Fagerberg Veronica A. Arntz David W. Fagerberg Liturgy Outside Liturgy: The Liturgical Theology of Fr. Alexander Schmemann Hong Kong: Chora Books, 2018 213 pages. Paperback. $24.60. Alexander Schmemann, one of the great Russian Orthodox theologians of the twentieth century, perceived that theology was in a profound crisis. Because theology became restricted to the realm of academia, it was ultimately disconnected from both liturgy and piety, which are essential elements to the Church’s life. Moreover, liturgy itself simply became one more area of theological research. For Schmemann, however, theology is born out of liturgy, and flows from it. His concerns are just as relevant today, in which we find that theology frequently becomes the pursuit of experts, being severed from the practice of liturgy. Thus, David W. Fagerberg’s recent book Liturgy Outside Liturgy: The Liturgical Theology of Fr. Alexander Schmemann, which is a study of the relationship between liturgy, theology, and piety in Schmemann’s writings, could not be timelier. The book is divided into two parts. In the first, Fagerberg studies the works of Schmemann on liturgy, theology, and piety, outlining his unique vision. The second part presents Fagerberg’s own perspective, with reference to Schmemann’s own theology. In this review, I will outline some of the major moments in Schmemann’s theology, with an eye to Fagerberg’s hope for an improved relationship between modern theology and liturgy. The importance of Schmemann’s thought for current academic theology will become clear. Schmemann recognized a tendency in the Church to turn “liturgical theology” into its own discipline. This creates a dangerous bifurcation between liturgy and theology, such that liturgy becomes the thing dissected by the “experts.” In reality, however, as Fagerberg explains, “Liturgy does not receive from theology its meaning, definition, place, and function within the Church. Instead liturgy, in addition to being a potential object of study, is above all the source [End Page 95] of theology. If this is so, then theology is born when the Church gathers at Eucharist” (61). Liturgy is not only an object of study, but is furthermore the place of origin of theology. This is why, for Schmemann, it is not the academic theologian who is truly a theologian, but rather, the simple woman in the pew who immerses herself in liturgy and prayer: “Mrs. Murphy has the charismatic gift of theology” (61)—an illustration used by Aidan Kavanagh (55). These ideas flow into another major theme in Schmemann’s writing, which Fagerberg draws out admirably. Liturgy and theology should not simply be fields in academia. As Schmemann writes, “[theology] today constitutes within the Church a self-centered world, virtually isolated from the Church’s life. It lives in itself and by itself in tranquil academic quarters, well defended against profane intrusions and curiosities by a highly technical language” (52). In other words, Schmemann sees that, because theology is pursued by the academy, it has become wholly separated from the life of the Church. While he is not entirely opposed to academic theology, he does think that theology is facing a crisis because it is separated from the Church and thereby liturgical life. Thus, his solution involves retrieving the idea that theology flows directly from the liturgical life of the Church (69–70). For this reason, Schmemann wants to see a reunion of theology, liturgy, and piety. As Fagerberg explains, “Liturgy will serve as the root and source of a piety that is nevertheless directed outward, toward the world, and not inward, toward itself” (101). Schmemann’s own words could not be more relevant today: “There can be no renewal in any area of Church life or, simply, of the Church herself, without first a spiritual renewal” (101). Liturgical piety then assumes an eschatological dimension, looking outward to the world and to the coming of the Kingdom, which is, indeed, already in our midst (103–104). Fagerberg shows that Schmemann’s understanding of liturgical theology is not ultimately focused on the work of the academy, but rather, on the life of the Church oriented toward the coming Kingdom. In the second part of the...

Reviewed by: Embodied Cross: Intercontextual Reading of Theologia Crucis Paul O. Ingram Embodied Cross: Intercontextual Reading of Theologia Crucis. By Arata Miyamoto. Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock, 2010. 150 pp. The author of Embodied Cross states his intention in the first sentence of his introduction: "This book aims to outline an intercontextual reading of theology of the cross . . . that flows across a global context," but in particular the context of Japanese Buddhism and, secondarily, Shinto tradition. Since Miyamoto declares this book is based on his doctoral dissertation submitted to the Lutheran School of Theology in Chicago in 2009—and it certainly reads like a dissertation written for Lutheran theologians— it might be useful to begin with a general description of the meaning of "theology of the cross" and "contextual theology" in order to communicate Miyamoto's intention and conclusions to a wider audience. A major problem facing contemporary Christian theological reflection is the issue of power. The contemporary postmodern critiques of thinkers such as Jean-François Lyotard, Jacques Derrida, and particularly Michel Foucault assert that all claims to truth, including the claims of theology, are merely secret bids for power. Until the late nineteenth century, Christianity dominated the cultures of the Western Europe, not because Christian tradition is truer than other religious traditions, but because Christianity was culturally and politically more powerful than its rivals. The question is, where does power lie? How are clergy and church leaders to use their power? Such accusations have been strengthened by the sense that the church has often used [End Page 164] theology to legitimate its claims to domination. This style of theological reflection is the defining character of "theology of glory" (theologia gloriae), which generally asserts that: (1) God's ways can be generally understood by human reason; (2) God's favor is experienced in the circumstances of life, in particular, life's successes and victories; (3) God is pleased by sincere human self-effort; and (4) faith, meaning "trust," in the historical Jesus as the Christ is God's ultimate revelatory self-disclosure and is the only means of redemption, meaning Christianity is the only path to "salvation." Theologies of the Cross (theologia crucis) are quite different from theologies of glory. "Theology of the Cross" was first coined by Martin Luther to refer to theological reflection that asserts that the life, death, and resurrection of the historical Jesus on Easter are the only sources of knowledge concerning God and how God redeems human beings and the world. Luther first used this term in the Heidelberg Disputation in 1518, but he actually very rarely used it in his subsequent theological writings and preaching. Luther was an Augustinian monk at the time, representing his order, and first presented his theses that later came to define the Protestant Reformation. To perhaps oversimplify, in contrast to theologies of glory, theologies of the cross generally assert: (1) God's ways are paradoxical and hidden to human reason; (2) God's grace is manifested in the historical Jesus, particularly in his suffering, death, and resurrection; and (3) God is pleased only by the historical Jesus as the Christ. Lutheran theologians generally claim that theologies of the cross and theologies of glory are mutually exclusive. Contextual theology refers to analysis of the way theology has been conceived in particular contexts. Contextual theologians are concerned with the interaction between universal themes in theology and issues relating to the particular context in which theological reflection takes place. Christian theological reflection is required to take the cultural and religious pluralism of all human communities seriously. But the theological traditions of Europe and America tend to absolutize Western culture and political traditions. The problem is that any universal truth claim arising from the experience of a particular culture or community can only have particular value for that particular culture or community. Accordingly, Christian theologians unaware of the thought and beliefs of peoples elsewhere assert false claims to universalism. This is so because there is no completely universal perspective, since all human thought and beliefs are limited by particular cultural and historical boundaries. Even so, there can be openness to the universal. While theologians of glory object that theological reflection deals with...

The Oxford Handbook of Apocalyptic is a thematic examination of ancient apocalyptic literature and its analogues in modern times. Apocalypticism first appears in Judaism in the Hellenistic period in the books of Daniel and Enoch. There is a distinctive genre “apocalypse” that describes the disclosure of a transcendent world, both spatial and temporal, to a human recipient, who is usually identified pseudonymously with a famous ancient figure. Apocalyptic themes, however, are also found more broadly in other genres, such as prophecy and wisdom. This volume explores the relationships between apocalypticism and several other genres, including prophecy, wisdom, dreams and visions, scriptural interpretation, and mysticism. It also explores the social function of apocalyptic literature and its use as resistance literature, both in ancient and in modern postcolonial perspective. Another section of the volume is devoted to apocalyptic rhetoric, in both Jewish and Christian contexts, and to the interpretive tradition that treats it as an allegory for political events. Several essays explore themes in apocalyptic theology, such as dualism and determinism. Essays in this section also explore its relation to the Torah in Jewish tradition, its role in Christian origins and its adaptation by Gnostics and Manichaeans. The final section of the volume considers the role of apocalypticism in contemporary Christianity and Judaism, especially its relevance to religious radicalism and violence, and also its role in popular culture.

Reviewed by: Many Roads Lead Eastward: Overtures to Catholic Biblical Theology by Robert D. Miller II Andrew R. Davis robert d. miller ii, Many Roads Lead Eastward: Overtures to Catholic Biblical Theology (Eugene, OR: Cascade, 2016). Pp. x + 113. Paper $17. In this slim volume Miller distills decades of reflection and conversation on the relationship between exegesis and theology into a thoughtful and highly readable survey of different hermeneutical models, leading to his own proposal of a model that seeks to "actualize" the biblical text. [End Page 120] After an opening chapter that diagnoses the divide separating biblical scholarship from systematic theology, and a second chapter that provides a concise and instructive discussion of inspiration, M. arrives at the heart of the book. Adopting with some modification Avery Dulles's Models of Revelation (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1992) as a framework, he surveys five different hermeneutical models and some of their representative practitioners: Revelation as Expression, which locates meaning in the biblical text itself rather than in its authors and tends to focus on one or more unifying themes (H. D. Preuss, Walther Eichrodt, Gerhard von Rad); Revelation in Canon, which interprets individual texts within their larger scriptural context (Brevard S. Childs, Rolf Rendtorff, James A. Sanders); Revelation as Event, which focuses on God's saving actions (magnalia Dei) as the locus of revelation rather than the biblical narrative that recounts them (G. Ernest Wright, Bruce Vawter, Jean Daniélou); Revelation as Expectation, which finds meaning in the ways communities are transformed by engaging biblical texts in all their diversity (Walter Brueggemann, Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, Edward Schillebeeckx); and Revelation in Ecclesia, which sees meaning in the communities who put into practice the plain sense of Scripture (Hans Frei, George Lindbeck, Stephen E. Fowl). Assessing the strengths and weaknesses of each model, this survey provides an evenhanded synthesis of the ways exegetes engage Scripture as revelation. This survey culminates in M.'s own proposed model, which he terms "actualization." It begins with establishing the plain sense of a biblical text through literary and historical-critical methodologies and then involves situating this reading within the faith expressed elsewhere in the Bible. This intrabiblical hermeneutics is a kind of Traditionsgeschichte, which recognizes the contribution of individual texts to the development of this biblical faith. For M., this "tradition" is no different from Tradition, such that the historical background of a biblical text is linked to its "foreground" in the NT and history of interpretation. Both background and foreground are vital for theological exegesis, and, for Christians, both converge on Christ. But this convergence is seen only in hindsight, and M. insists that an OT text first be read "according to principles and categories intrinsic to that text" (p. 85). The last step of M.'s model returns us to his primary goal, namely, the intersection of biblical exegesis and systematic theology; he calls on biblical scholars "to examine ways in which modern theologians (Catholic and Protestant) appropriate the text's 'symbols'" (p. 88). The strengths of this book are numerous. First, it provides a timely argument for the indispensability of historical criticism for theological exegesis. M.'s training in the former and commitment to the latter enable him to bridge the divide he has diagnosed. An especially welcome feature of his analysis is his engagement with various church documents related to Scripture and with systematic theologians. Having called for theological exegesis that is more than "merely Wissenschaft plus pious reflection or parenesis" (p. 9), he models the hermeneutical engagement he has recommended. Lastly, I would highlight the book's readability, by which I mean its brevity and tone. M. has covered much ground in a short space, and his writing style is amiable and learned without being overly academic. For all of these qualities the book deserves a wide readership. As for weaknesses, M.'s proposal could benefit from an exegetical test case. Over a third of Dulles's book, which provided the framework for this book, is devoted to applying [End Page 121] his and other models of revelation to various theological topics. If M. had followed suit and applied his hermeneutical approach to a particular biblical text, he would have thickened...

This book blends historical, theological, and philosophical inquiries into what “modernity” means with the aim of showing how Newman can analyze, critique, and explain fruitful ways forward within a diverse range of subjects. First, it surveys historical and theological topics such as how Newman understood “modernity,” the sensus fidelium, the role of doubt and modern views of reason; Newman’s university ideal; and a return to the saint for much-needed anthropological insights. Second, the volume shows how Newman’s thought can be insightfully applied to key issues within church and society: the need to redefine “American” Catholicism, the challenge of secularization, the role of Christian joy, revelation and religious diversity, progress traps and the ecological crisis, and overcoming post-modern individualism. Throughout each chapter, contributors consistently bring Newman’s original and penetrating thought to bear upon critical themes in theological anthropology, ecclesiology, comparative theology, and spirituality. The volume shows how Newman’s thought can be extended and enriched by dialogue with contemporary thinkers such as Charles Taylor, Pope Francis, and Bruno Latour. In brief, the contributors demonstrate how Newman can help frame contemporary self-understandings and various theological and social imaginaries in the light of faith.

When dealing with ancestor veneration in the church we ought to listen to African spirituality, the biblical witness, the ecclesial tradition and modernity. African spirituality is characterised by remoteness of the Supreme Being, submission to ancestral authority and tight communal cohesion. Ancestor veneration was not an issue in Luther’s time, but it is possible to explore how main tenets of Luther’s theology could be applied to ancestor veneration. The hidden and revealed God: the redemptive intentions of God reassure us in times of adversity, suffering and affliction. Sola Scriptura: the claim of Yahweh eliminated ancestor veneration from the biblical tradition. Solus Christus: God is accessible in Christ and needs no ancestral mediation. Sola gratia: all conditions of acceptance are suspended. Sola fide: faith is trust in God’s promise of a redeemed life. The fruit of the gospel: faith leads to freedom and responsibility rather than submission to authority and fixed codes of conduct. Two aspects of God’s rule: believers take up critical responsibility for social structures including the family. The Lord’s Supper: the crucified Christ is identified with tangible substances so that he can be ritually present for us here and now. Finally, the Lutheran tradition is critiqued from the perspective of African spirituality: a spiritualised gospel, a truncated concept of salvation and passivity.

Theologians from Bellarmino and Gregor of Valencia to Yves M.-J. Congar have questioned different aspects of Luther's Christology in relation to Catholic tradition. Luther generally set forth his theology within specific disputes, and in this article it is discussed whether Luther had a consistent Christology based on a reflection over the two natures of Christ and the asserted unity and communication between them. Further, what Luther meant with his theory of words acquiring new meanings when they are transferred from the sphere of philosophy to theology (nova vocabula), talking about the relation between created and uncreated in Christ, is discussed. The article concludes that the soteriological intention of Luther's Christology, and especially the doctrine of two natures, is in line with the formula of Chalcedon: “For us and for our salvation.” Luther maintains this against all ontological speculations about the terms used in the doctrine of two natures.

The wrath of God is an important, albeit somewhat neglected subject of biblical theology. Objections to the reality of the divine wrath have arisen mainly from intrusions of philosophical ideas into Christian thought. According to Neo‐Platonism divine affection and anger in every form and shape is foreign to God. God has no pathos. God is above joy and sorrow. Wrath is a sign of weakness that does not square with the divine perfection and his unchanging nature. These Greek ideas significantly influenced many of the early church fathers (Pohlenz; Miggelbrink). However, already Lactantius in his significant work De Ira Dei (d. c.317) has recognized that in contrast to the apathy of the divine nature in Stoicism the love of the biblical God also involves his strong objection to everything evil and thus his wrath. Some modern theologians have dismissed the notion of the wrath of God as not usable in modern theology (Helmer Ringgren). For Schleiermacher it does not have relevance for Christians and should be avoided in our preaching and teaching. Albrecht Ritschl claimed that God's wrath is without any religious worth. On the other hand Jonathan Edwards in his famous sermon, “Sinners in the hands of an angry God” (1741), used the image of the wrath of God to paint a picture of fear in the minds of people. Karl Barth and Emil Brunner, in contrast, have recognized the positive value of the biblical notion of God's wrath, which is based on God's holiness.

Reviewed by: J. S. Bach's Material and Spiritual Treasures: A Theological Perspective by Noelle M. Heber Mark A. Peters (bio) Noelle M. Heber. J. S. Bach's Material and Spiritual Treasures: A Theological Perspective. Woodbridge, Suffolk: Boydell Press, 2021. xxi, 264 pp. In J. S. Bach's Material and Spiritual Treasures: A Theological Perspective, Noelle M. Heber seeks to bring together two realms that modern readers may consider separate, but that J. S. Bach and his German Lutheran contemporaries would not: the "sacred" and the "secular." Her focus in this regard is "treasure," both Bach's own financial situation and conceptions of wealth and poverty in Lutheran theology and Bach's church compositions. Chapters 1 and 7 primarily address Bach's biography, while chapters 2–6 each address a particular theological theme related to wealth and poverty in Bach's church cantatas and the St. Matthew Passion. Heber indicates that the book's key word, "treasure," translates the German "Schatz," used in Luther's Bible translation for concepts such as "riches," "money," or "silver and gold," as well as metaphorically for spiritual riches (9). A key New Testament passage related to these concepts is Matthew 6:19–21, which recounts the words of Jesus contrasting "treasures upon earth" with "treasures in heaven." Heber further notes that in Lutheran theology this contrast of heavenly and earthly treasure was regularly paralleled with discussions of material and spiritual poverty (10). In chapter 1, "Bach's Material Treasures: Career, Salary, and Freelancing," Heber provides an invaluable account of Bach's relationship with finances. The chapter provides a comprehensive summary of Bach's financial situation throughout his life, with extensive reference to primary and secondary sources. It addresses Bach's salary at his various positions, with particular attention to the unstable nature of his Leipzig salary. Heber further details Bach's other sources of income, including payments from legacies and foundations, weddings and funerals, instrument maintenance and other church-related payments, freelance work, organ examinations, guest performances, private music lessons, publications, instrument sales and rentals, and direction of the Leipzig Collegium Musicum. Heber concludes that Bach's total income must have been higher than is often quoted and documents how Bach was regularly paid more than other musicians for doing the same job. Her final consideration of Anna Magdalena Bach's financial state after her husband's death should be read in [End Page 233] conjunction with David Yearsley's treatment of this topic in his Sex, Death, and Minuets: Anna Magdalena Bach and Her Musical Notebooks.1 In chapter 6, "A Widow's Song," Yearsley provides a detailed analysis of Anna Magdalena's finances after her husband's death, then contextualizes this with a study of contemporary devotional writings and songs (for both church and home) addressing widowhood. In chapters 2–6 of J. S. Bach's Material and Spiritual Treasures, Heber shifts to address Bach's church compositions in the context of Lutheran theology of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Each chapter addresses a different theological aspect related to wealth and poverty, focused on Bach's compositions for a particular liturgical occasion. Chapter 2 explores Jesus's suffering, servanthood, and poverty in relation to five Bach cantatas composed for the three days of Christmas (Gelobet seist du, Jesu Christ BWV 91, Ehre sei Gott in der Höhe BWV 197a, part I of the Christmas Oratorio, Christum wir sollen loben schon BWV 121, and Süsser Trost, mein Jesus kömmt BWV 151). Chapter 3 focuses on the potential positive and negative uses of wealth as reflected in three of Bach's cantatas for the Ninth Sunday after Trinity (Herr, gehe nicht ins Gericht BWV 105, Was frag ich nach der Welt BWV 94, and Tue Rechnung! Donnerwort BWV 168). In chapter 4, Heber then discusses Bach's cantatas for the First Sunday after Trinity (Die Elenden sollen essen BWV 75, O Ewigkeit, du Donnerwort BWV 20, Brich dem Hungrigen dein Brot BWV 39), with its Gospel reading narrating Jesus's parable of the rich man and Lazarus and its implications of the eternal consequences of riches and poverty in earthly life. Chapter 5 examines Bach's cantatas related to the story...

This article examines Descartes’ theory of the free creation of eternal truths, showing the theological implications of its underlying philosophical principles. The author ponders the way in which Descartes treats certain topics that pertain to natural theology (God’s dignity and power, the equivocity between the finite and the infinite), as well as the Christological tension that runs through his theory. The theological echoes of this theory are then assessed, looking at thinkers after Descartes as well as the minores, with a focus on two theological themes: the recovery of univocity, and some of the contours of the kind of Christology Descartes’ theory authorizes. The aim of the article, by showing the fruitfulness of an approach that places modern philosophy and theology in conversation, is to ask how a theological reading of Descartes and Cartesian thought may help renew its study.

The individual thinking of each of us causes many of us to give up the utopian dreams of the human mastery over living conditions and the exercise of a new responsibility, in accordance with our new powers. Our ethical responsibility and our fateful ontological choice is to do what is necessary to ensure the continued, worldly integrity of mankind and it's continuity in an indefinite future, to ensure a good continuation of life between communities or even in the relations between the states of the world. We point out as a first example the ecological crisis and the moral crisis of transforming ecological behavior into a habit when humanity needs resources to survive. However, it is necessary to give recognition to researchers who claim that traditional systems of ethics do not have the resources to cope with our unprecedented technological powers, and the effort of all to fill the philosophical void but also the real, tangible and practically proven part of ethics with an "ethics of responsibility", it is something other than a simple daily habit.